Molecular Mechanisms of Lithium Action: Switching the Light on Multiple Targets for Dementia Using Animal Models

Keap1-independent Nrf2 regulation: A novel therapeutic target for treating kidney disease

The transcription factor NF-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) is a master regulator of antioxidant responses in mammals, where it plays a critical role in detoxification, maintaining cellular homeostasis, combating inflammation and fibrosis, and slowing disease progression. Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (Keap1), an adaptor subunit of Cullin 3-based E3 ubiquitin ligase, serves as a critical sensor of oxidative and electrophilic stress, regulating Nrf2 activity by sequestering it in the cytoplasm, leading to its proteasomal degradation and transcriptional repression. However, the clinical potential of targeting the Keap1-dependent Nrf2 regulatory pathway has been limited. This is evidenced by early postnatal lethality in Keap1 knockout mice, as well as significant adverse events after pharmacological blockade of Keap1 in human patients with Alport syndrome as well as in those with type 2 diabetes mellitus and chronic kidney disease. The exact underlying mechanisms remain elusive, but may involve non-specific and systemic activation of the Nrf2 antioxidant response in both injured and normal tissues. Beyond Keap1-dependent regulation, Nrf2 activity is modulated by Keap1-independent mechanisms, including transcriptional, epigenetic, and post-translational modifications. In particular, GSK3β has emerged as a critical convergence point for these diverse signaling pathways. Unlike Keap1-dependent regulation, GSK3β-mediated Keap1-independent Nrf2 regulation does not affect basal Nrf2 activity but modulates its response at a delayed/late phase of cellular stress. This allows fine-tuning of the inducibility, magnitude, and duration of the Nrf2 response specifically in stressed or injured tissues. As one of the most metabolically active organs, the kidney is a major source of production of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species and also a vulnerable organ to oxidative damage. Targeting the GSK3β-mediated Nrf2 regulatory pathway represents a promising new approach for the treatment of kidney disease.

Selected micro- and macro-element associations with oxidative status markers in common carp (Cyprinus carpio) blood serum and ejaculate: a correlation study

The aim of this study was to (1) determine complex interactions between macro- and micro-elements present in blood serum and ejaculate of common carp (Cyprinus carpio), and (2) examine the association between alterations in these macro- and micro-elements with markers of oxidative stress. Blood and ejaculate from 10 male carp were collected in the summer period on the experimental pond in Kolíňany (West Slovak Lowland). Reactive oxygen species (ROS), total antioxidant capacity (TAC), protein carbonyls (PC), and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels were measured in blood serum and ejaculate using spectrophotometric methods. The amounts of elements (Ag, Al, Ba, Co, Li, Mo, Ca, K, Na, and Mg) in all samples were quantified using inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrophotometry. Data demonstrated significant differences in elemental concentrations between blood and ejaculate, specifically significantly higher ejaculate levels were detected for Ag, Al, Ba, Co, Li, Mo, K, and Mg. Potassium was the most abundant macro-element in the ejaculate, while sodium was the most abundant in blood serum. Among the micro-elements, Al was predominant in both types of samples. It is noteworthy that oxidative status markers including ROS, TAC, and MDA were significantly higher in ejaculate indicating the presence of oxidative stress in C. carpio reproductive tissue. The positive correlations between Mg and Ca in blood serum and ejaculate suggest these elements play a functional role in metabolic and physiological processes. In contrast, the positive correlations of Ba and Al with markers of oxidative stress indicated the association of these metals with induction of oxidative stress. Our findings provide insights into the association of metals with biomarkers of physiological function as well as adverse effects in C. carpio.

Lithium, Inflammation and Neuroinflammation with Emphasis on Bipolar Disorder-A Narrative Review

This narrative review examines lithium's effects on immune function, inflammation and cell survival, particularly in bipolar disorder (BD) in in vitro studies, animal models and clinical studies. In vitro studies show that high lithium concentrations (5 mM, beyond the therapeutic window) reduce interleukin (IL)-1β production in monocytes and enhance T-lymphocyte resistance, suggesting a protective role against cell death. Lithium modulates oxidative stress in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated macrophages by inhibiting nuclear factor (NF)-ƙB activity and reducing nitric oxide production. At therapeutically relevant levels, lithium increased both pro-inflammatory [interferon (INF)-γ, IL-8 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α)] and anti-inflammatory (IL-10) cytokines on whole blood supernatant culture in healthy volunteers, influencing the balance of pro- and anti-inflammatory responses. Animal models reveal lithium's potential to alleviate inflammatory diseases by reducing pro-inflammatory cytokines and enhancing anti-inflammatory responses. It also induces selective macrophage death in atherosclerotic plaques without harming other cells. In primary rat cerebellum cultures (ex vivo), lithium prevents neuronal loss and inhibits astroglial growth, impacting astrocytes and microglia. Clinical studies show that lithium alters cytokine profiles and reduces neuroinflammatory markers in BD patients. Chronic treatment decreases IL-2, IL-6, IL-10 and IFN-γ secretion from peripheral blood leukocytes. Lithium response correlates with TNF-α levels, with poor responders showing higher TNF-α. Overall, these findings elucidate lithium's diverse mechanisms in modulating immune responses, reducing inflammation and promoting cell survival, with significant implications for managing BD and other inflammation-related conditions. Yet, to better understand the drug's impact in BD and other inflammatory/neuroinflammatory conditions, further research is warranted to appreciate lithium's therapeutic potential and its role in immune regulation.

Emerging therapies for treatment of agitation, psychosis, or apathy in Alzheimer's disease

INTRODUCTION

Agitation, psychosis, and apathy are prevalent and highly distressing neuropsychiatric symptoms (NPS) of Alzheimer's disease (AD) that have been linked to numerous negative outcomes, including increased mortality, worsened cognitive decline, and caregiver burden. Current treatments for AD-associated agitation, namely atypical antipsychotics, provide some benefits but may increase the risk of serious adverse events and death. Meanwhile, no pharmacotherapies have been approved by regulatory agencies for the treatment of psychosis or apathy in AD. Over the past decade, many new and repurposed drugs have emerged as potential therapeutic options for managing these challenging NPS.

AREAS COVERED

This review aims to provide a comprehensive summary of pharmacotherapies that have recently been investigated in phase 2 and 3 clinical trials for the treatment of agitation, psychosis, or apathy in AD.

EXPERT OPINION

Novel atypical antipsychotics, serotonergic antidepressants, cannabinoids, and dextromethorphan combination drugs have shown promising results for alleviating agitation. Pimavanserin appears to be the most effective emerging therapy for psychosis, while methylphenidate has demonstrated good efficacy for apathy. Further research on biomarkers of NPS severity and treatment response, as well as continued improvements in methodological approaches are needed to advance the field.

Natural compounds from herbs and nutraceuticals as glycogen synthase kinase-3β inhibitors in Alzheimer's disease treatment

BACKGROUND

Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathogenesis is complex. The pathophysiology is not fully understood, and safe and effective treatments are needed. Glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK-3β) mediates AD progression through several signaling pathways. Recently, several studies have found that various natural compounds from herbs and nutraceuticals can significantly improve AD symptoms.

AIMS

This review aims to provide a comprehensive summary of the potential neuroprotective impacts of natural compounds as inhibitors of GSK-3β in the treatment of AD.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We conducted a systematic literature search on PubMed, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, and Google Scholar, focusing on in vitro and in vivo studies that investigated natural compounds as inhibitors of GSK-3β in the treatment of AD.

RESULTS

The mechanism may be related to GSK-3β activation inhibition to regulate amyloid beta production, tau protein hyperphosphorylation, cell apoptosis, and cellular inflammation. By reviewing recent studies on GSK-3β inhibition in phytochemicals and AD intervention, flavonoids including oxyphylla A, quercetin, morin, icariin, linarin, genipin, and isoorientin were reported as potent GSK-3β inhibitors for AD treatment. Polyphenols such as schisandrin B, magnolol, and dieckol have inhibitory effects on GSK-3β in AD models, including in vivo models. Sulforaphene, ginsenoside Rd, gypenoside XVII, falcarindiol, epibrassinolides, 1,8-Cineole, and andrographolide are promising GSK-3β inhibitors.

CONCLUSIONS

Natural compounds from herbs and nutraceuticals are potential candidates for AD treatment. They may qualify as derivatives for development as promising compounds that provide enhanced pharmacological characteristics.

Lithium Ions as Modulators of Complex Biological Processes: The Conundrum of Multiple Targets, Responsiveness and Non-Responsiveness, and the Potential to Prevent or Correct Dysregulation of Systems during Aging and in Disease

Lithium is one of the lightest elements on Earth and it has been in the environment since the formation of the galaxy. While a common element, it has not been found to be an essential element in biological processes, ranging from single cell organisms to Homo sapiens. Instead, at an early stage of evolution, organisms committed to a range of elements such as sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, zinc, and iron to serve essential functions. Such ions serve critical functions in ion channels, as co-factors in enzymes, as a cofactor in oxygen transport, in DNA replication, as a storage molecule in bone and liver, and in a variety of other roles in biological processes. While seemingly excluded from a major essential role in such processes, lithium ions appear to be able to modulate a variety of biological processes and "correct" deviation from normal activity, as a deficiency of lithium can have biological consequences. Lithium salts are found in low levels in many foods and water supplies, but the effectiveness of Li salts to affect biological systems came to recent prominence with the work of Cade, who reported that administrating Li salts calmed guinea pigs and was subsequently effective at relatively high doses to "normalize" a subset of patients with bipolar disorders. Because of its ability to modulate many biological pathways and processes (e.g., cyclic AMP, GSK-3beta, inositol metabolism, NaK ATPases, neuro processes and centers, immune-related events, respectively) both in vitro and in vivo and during development and adult life, Li salts have become both a useful tool to better understand the molecular regulation of such processes and to also provide insights into altered biological processes in vivo during aging and in disease states. While the range of targets for lithium action supports its possible role as a modulator of biological dysregulation, it presents a conundrum for researchers attempting to elucidate its specific primary target in different tissues in vivo. This review will discuss aspects of the state of knowledge regarding some of the systems that can be influenced, focusing on those involving neural and autoimmunity as examples, some of the mechanisms involved, examples of how Li salts can be used to study model systems, as well as suggesting areas where the use of Li salts could lead to additional insights into both disease mechanisms and natural processes at the molecular and cell levels. In addition, caveats regarding lithium doses used, the strengths and weaknesses of rodent models, the background genetics of the strain of mice or rats employed, and the sex of the animals or the cells used, are discussed. Low-dose lithium may have excellent potential, alone or in combination with other interventions to prevent or alleviate aging-associated conditions and disease progression.

Bipolar disorder and Lewy body dementia: case report and literature review

Depressive episodes with psychotic symptoms are prevalent among the older adults, emphasizing the need to differentiate them from dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB), in which depressive and psychotic symptoms commonly coexist. In contrast, psychotic symptoms occur more frequently in depressive episodes of bipolar disorder (BD) than in major depressive disorder (MDD). Although MDD is a significant risk factor for dementia, studies exploring the relationship between BD and dementia are lacking. This report details the case of a 74-year-old female who experienced severe psychotic depression that led to suicide attempts during a long-term course of young-onset BD. Ultimately, she was diagnosed with DLB based on her neurocognitive symptoms and results of the neuroimaging examination. She had experienced multiple relapses in the past, predominantly characterized by depressive episodes in her old age. Notably, she had never undergone lithium treatment, which is known for its potential efficacy in preventing relapse and dementia. Recent systematic reviews and meta-analyses have suggested that patients with BD have a higher risk of dementia than the general population, and that lithium usage is associated with a reduced risk. Moreover, patients with BD have been suggested to have an elevated risk of developing Parkinson's disease (PD), and the pathophysiological relationship between BD and PD may be attributed to dopamine dysregulation resulting from multiple relapses. Future research is imperative to identify strategies for preventing dementia in patients with BD and to develop interventions for the comorbidities of BD and DLB.

New Advances in the Pharmacology and Toxicology of Lithium: A Neurobiologically Oriented Overview

Over the last six decades, lithium has been considered the gold standard treatment for the long-term management of bipolar disorder due to its efficacy in preventing both manic and depressive episodes as well as suicidal behaviors. Nevertheless, despite numerous observed effects on various cellular pathways and biologic systems, the precise mechanism through which lithium stabilizes mood remains elusive. Furthermore, there is recent support for the therapeutic potential of lithium in other brain diseases. This review offers a comprehensive examination of contemporary understanding and predominant theories concerning the diverse mechanisms underlying lithium's effects. These findings are based on investigations utilizing cellular and animal models of neurodegenerative and psychiatric disorders. Recent studies have provided additional support for the significance of glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK3) inhibition as a crucial mechanism. Furthermore, research has shed more light on the interconnections between GSK3-mediated neuroprotective, antioxidant, and neuroplasticity processes. Moreover, recent advancements in animal and human models have provided valuable insights into how lithium-induced modifications at the homeostatic synaptic plasticity level may play a pivotal role in its clinical effectiveness. We focused on findings from translational studies suggesting that lithium may interface with microRNA expression. Finally, we are exploring the repurposing potential of lithium beyond bipolar disorder. These recent findings on the therapeutic mechanisms of lithium have provided important clues toward developing predictive models of response to lithium treatment and identifying new biologic targets. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Lithium is the drug of choice for the treatment of bipolar disorder, but its mechanism of action in stabilizing mood remains elusive. This review presents the latest evidence on lithium's various mechanisms of action. Recent evidence has strengthened glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK3) inhibition, changes at the level of homeostatic synaptic plasticity, and regulation of microRNA expression as key mechanisms, providing an intriguing perspective that may help bridge the mechanistic gap between molecular functions and its clinical efficacy as a mood stabilizer.

Effects of lithium isotopes on sodium/lithium co-transport and calcium efflux through the sodium/calcium/lithium exchanger in mitochondria

The effects of lithium (Li) isotopes and their impact on biological processes have recently gained increased attention due to the significance of Li as a pharmacological agent and the potential that Li isotopic effects in neuroscience contexts may constitute a new example of quantum effects in biology. Previous studies have shown that the two Li isotopes, which differ in mass and nuclear spin, have unusual different effects in vivo and in vitro and, although some molecular targets for Li isotope fractionation have been proposed, it is not known whether those result in observable downstream neurophysiological effects. In this work we studied fluxes of Li+, sodium (Na+) and calcium (Ca2+) ions in the mitochondrial sodium/calcium/lithium exchanger (NCLX), the only transporter known with recognized specificity for Li+. We studied the effect of Li+ isotopes on Ca2+ efflux from heart mitochondria in comparison to natural Li+ and Na+ using Ca2+-induced fluorescence and investigated a possible Li isotope fractionation in mitochondria using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Our fluorescence data indicate that Ca2+ efflux increases with higher concentrations of either Li+ or Na+. We found that the simultaneous presence of Li+ and Na+ increases Ca2+ efflux compared to Ca2+ efflux caused by the same concentration of Li+ alone. However, no differentiation in the Ca2+ efflux between the two Li+ isotopes was observed, either for Li+ alone or in mixtures of Li+ and Na+. Our ICP-MS data demonstrate that there is selectivity between Na+ and Li+ (greater Na+ than Li+ uptake) and, most interestingly, between the Li+ isotopes (greater 6Li+ than 7Li+ uptake) by the inner mitochondrial membrane. In summary, we observed no Li+ isotope differentiation for Ca2+ efflux in mitochondria via NCLX but found a Li+ isotope fractionation during Li+ uptake by mitochondria with NCLX active or blocked. Our results suggest that the transport of Li+ via NCLX is not the main pathway for Li+ isotope fractionation and that this differentiation does not affect Ca2+ efflux in mitochondria. Therefore, explaining the puzzling effects of Li+ isotopes observed in other contexts will require further investigation to identify the molecular targets for Li+ isotope differentiation.

Lithium carbonate revitalizes tumor-reactive CD8+ T cells by shunting lactic acid into mitochondria

The steady flow of lactic acid (LA) from tumor cells to the extracellular space via the monocarboxylate transporter symport system suppresses antitumor T cell immunity. However, LA is a natural energy metabolite that can be oxidized in the mitochondria and could potentially stimulate T cells. Here we show that the lactate-lowering mood stabilizer lithium carbonate (LC) can inhibit LA-mediated CD8+ T cell immunosuppression. Cytoplasmic LA increased the pumping of protons into lysosomes. LC interfered with vacuolar ATPase to block lysosomal acidification and rescue lysosomal diacylglycerol-PKCθ signaling to facilitate monocarboxylate transporter 1 localization to mitochondrial membranes, thus transporting LA into the mitochondria as an energy source for CD8+ T cells. These findings indicate that targeting LA metabolism using LC could support cancer immunotherapy.

Lithium and disease modification: A systematic review and meta-analysis in Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease

The role of lithium as a possible therapeutic strategy for neurodegenerative diseases has generated scientific interest. We systematically reviewed and meta-analyzed pre-clinical and clinical studies that evidenced the neuroprotective effects of lithium in Alzheimer's (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD). We followed the PRISMA guidelines and performed the systematic literature search using PubMed, EMBASE, Web of Science, and Cochrane Library. A total of 32 articles were identified. Twenty-nine studies were performed in animal models and 3 studies were performed on human samples of AD. A total of 17 preclinical studies were included in the meta-analysis. Our analysis showed that lithium treatment has neuroprotective effects in diseases. Lithium treatment reduced amyloid-β and tau levels and significantly improved cognitive behavior in animal models of AD. Lithium increased the tyrosine hydroxylase levels and improved motor behavior in the PD model. Despite fewer clinical studies on these aspects, we evidenced the positive effects of lithium in AD patients. This study lends further support to the idea of lithium's therapeutic potential in neurodegenerative diseases.

Ameliorative Effect of Cannabidiol on Topiramate-Induced Memory Loss: The Role of Hippocampal and Prefrontal Cortical NMDA Receptors and CREB/BDNF Signaling Pathways in Rats

Cannabidiol (CBD) is a promising neurological agent with potential beneficial effects on memory and cognitive function. The combination of CBD and topiramate in the treatment of some neurological diseases has been of great interest. Since Topiramate-induced memory loss is a major drawback of its clinical application and the overall effect of the combination of CBD and topiramate on memory is still unclear, here we investigated the effect of CBD on topiramate-induced memory loss and the underlying molecular mechanisms. A one trial step-through inhibitory test was used to evaluate memory consolidation in rats. Moreover, the role of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) in the combination of CBD and topiramate in memory consolidation was evaluated through the intra-CA1 administration of MK-801 and NMDA. Western blot analysis was used to evaluate variations in brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and phosphorylated cyclic AMP response element-binding protein (pCREB)/CREB ratio in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and hippocampus (HPC). While the intraperitoneal (i.p.) administration of topiramate (50, 75, and 100 mg/kg) significantly reduced inhibitory time latency, the i.p. administration of CBD (20 and 40 mg/kg) could effectively reverse these effects. Similarly, the sub-effective doses of NMDA plus CBD (10 mg/kg) could improve the topiramate-induced memory loss along with an enhancement in BDNF and pCREB expression in the PFC and HPC. Contrarily, the administration of sub-effective doses of the NMDAR antagonist (MK-801) diminished the protective effects of CBD (20 mg/kg) on topiramate-induced memory loss associated with decreased BDNF and pCREB levels in the PFC and HPC. These findings suggest that CBD can improve topiramate-induced memory impairment, partially by the NMDARs of the PFC and HPC, possibly regulated by the CREB/BDNF signaling pathway.

Accumulation and neuroprotective effects of lithium on hepatocellular carcinoma mice model

AIM

The peripheral tumor growth is accompanied by the accumulation of inflammatory mediators in the blood that can negatively influence blood-brain barrier function and neuronal structure and develop the cancer-associated depression. The aim of the study was to evaluate the neurobiological effects of lithium on hepatocellular carcinoma mice model.

METHODS

In this study we analyzed the locomotor activity of lithium-treated tumor-bearing mice using the Phenomaster instrument. Inductively coupled plasma mass-spectral analysis was used to determine lithium levels in blood, brain, liver, kidneys, tumors and muscle tissues. The prefrontal cortex neurons ultrastructure was assessed by transmission electron microscopy. Expression of BDNF, GRP78, EEA1, LAMP1, and LC3 beta in neurons was determined by immunohistochemical analysis.

RESULTS

A decrease in locomotor activity was found in animals with tumors. At the same time, the low expression levels of the neurotrophic factor BDNF and early endosomal marker EEA1 were revealed, as well as the decreased amount of synaptic vesicles and synapses was shown. Signs of endoplasmic reticulum stress and autophagy development in neurons of animals with tumors were noted. Lithium carbonate administration had a corrective effect on animal's behavior and the prefrontal cortex neurons structure.

CONCLUSIONS

In summary, lithium can restore the neuronal homeostasis in tumor-bearing mice.

The effect of chronic lithium treatment on hippocampal progenitor cells: Transcriptomic analysis and systems pharmacology

OBJECTIVE

To identify the genomics underpinning the increased volume of the hippocampus after long-term administration of lithium (Li) in bipolar disorder patients, hypothesizing the possible contribution of cell growth and differentiation pathways to this complication.

METHODS

RNA-seq profiles of four samples of hippocampal progenitor cells chronically treated with a high dose of Li and three samples chronically treated with the therapeutic dose were retrieved from NCBI-GEO. The raw data underwent filtration, quality control, expression fold change, adjusted significance, functional enrichment, and pharmacogenomic analyses.

RESULTS

CCND1, LOXL2, and PRNP were identified as the genes involved in the drug response and the chronic effects of Li in the hippocampal cells. GSK-3β was also a hub in the pharmacogenomic network of Li. In addition, ZMPSTE24 and DHX35 were identified as the important genes in lithium therapy.

CONCLUSIONS

As shown by gene ontology results, these findings conclude that lithium may increase the size of the hippocampus in bipolar patients by stimulating the generation of new neurons and promoting their differentiation into neuroblasts, neurons, or microglia.

Lithium isotopes differentially modify mitochondrial amorphous calcium phosphate cluster size distribution and calcium capacity

Lithium is commonly prescribed as a mood stabilizer in a variety of mental health conditions, yet its molecular mode of action is incompletely understood. Many cellular events associated with lithium appear tied to mitochondrial function. Further, recent evidence suggests that lithium bioactivities are isotope specific. Here we focus on lithium effects related to mitochondrial calcium handling. Lithium protected against calcium-induced permeability transition and decreased the calcium capacity of liver mitochondria at a clinically relevant concentration. In contrast, brain mitochondrial calcium capacity was increased by lithium. Surprisingly, 7Li acted more potently than 6Li on calcium capacity, yet 6Li was more effective at delaying permeability transition. The size distribution of amorphous calcium phosphate colloids formed in vitro was differentially affected by lithium isotopes, providing a mechanistic basis for the observed isotope specific effects on mitochondrial calcium handling. This work highlights a need to better understand how mitochondrial calcium stores are structurally regulated and provides key considerations for future formulations of lithium-based therapeutics.

Cure of Alzheimer's Dementia Requires Addressing All of the Affected Brain Cell Types

Multiple genetic, metabolic, and environmental abnormalities are known to contribute to the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's dementia (AD). If all of those abnormalities were addressed it should be possible to reverse the dementia; however, that would require a suffocating volume of drugs. Nevertheless, the problem may be simplified by using available data to address, instead, the brain cells whose functions become changed as a result of the abnormalities, because at least eleven drugs are available from which to formulate a rational therapy to correct those changes. The affected brain cell types are astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, neurons, endothelial cells/pericytes, and microglia. The available drugs include clemastine, dantrolene, erythropoietin, fingolimod, fluoxetine, lithium, memantine, minocycline, pioglitazone, piracetam, and riluzole. This article describes the ways by which the individual cell types contribute to AD's pathogenesis and how each of the drugs corrects the changes in the cell types. All five of the cell types may be involved in the pathogenesis of AD; of the 11 drugs, fingolimod, fluoxetine, lithium, memantine, and pioglitazone, each address all five of the cell types. Fingolimod only slightly addresses endothelial cells, and memantine is the weakest of the remaining four. Low doses of either two or three drugs are suggested in order to minimize the likelihood of toxicity and drug-drug interactions (including drugs used for co-morbidities). Suggested two-drug combinations are pioglitazone plus lithium and pioglitazone plus fluoxetine; a three-drug combination could add either clemastine or memantine. Clinical trials are required to validate that the suggest combinations may reverse AD.

Low-level lithium in drinking water and subsequent risk of dementia: Cohort study

BACKGROUND

Lithium, a mood stabilizer, is known to exhibit neuroprotective effects in animal models and may have anti-dementia effects.

AIMS

We used data from Scottish Mental Survey 1932, a population-based cohort study, to investigate the association between lithium in drinking water and dementia rate in humans.

METHOD

Lithium levels in drinking water from 285 sampling sites across Scotland dating from 2014 were obtained from the sole public water provider (Scottish Water). Dementia and non dementia cases were identified from cohort data by electronic health records until 2012, and linked to postcode.

RESULTS

The mean lithium level at all sampling sites was 1.45 μg/L (SD 1.83, range 0.5-18.2) and was 1.26 (SD 0.63, range 0.55-9.19) for sites matched to participant data. Of 37,597 study members, 3605 developed dementia until June 2012. Lithium levels were positively associated with the risk of dementia in women (highest in second quartile, HR 1.17, 95%CI 1.04-1.32), but there was no relationship in men (highest in second quartile, HR 0.95, 95% CI 0.81-1.12). The pattern of association was explored further by decile, and in females there was an association between lithium level and increased dementia risk compared to the lowest decile (0.55-0.68 μg/L) in all deciles except the highest, corresponding with lithium levels 0.68-2.1 μg/L.

CONCLUSIONS

Lithium levels in drinking water are very low across Scotland which limited detection of potential effect. Our results do not support an association between extremely low levels of lithium and later dementia risk. We found a trend to increased risk in females at lithium levels below but not above 2.1 μg/L.

Lithium affects the circadian clock in the choroid plexus - A new role for an old mechanism

Lithium is an effective mood stabilizer, but the mechanism of its therapeutic action is not well understood. We investigated the effect of lithium on the circadian clock located in the ventricle barrier complex containing the choroid plexus (CP), a part of the glymphatic system that influences gross brain function via the production of cerebrospinal fluid. The mPer2^Luc mice were injected with lithium chloride (LiCl) or vehicle, and their effects on the clock gene Nr1d1 in CP were detected by RT qPCR. CP organotypic explants were prepared to monitor bioluminescence rhythms in real time and examine the responses of the CP clock to LiCl and inhibitors of glycogen synthase kinase-3 (CHIR-99021) and protein kinase C (chelerythrine). LiCl affected Nr1d1 expression levels in CP in vivo and dose-dependently delayed the phase and prolonged the period of the CP clock in vitro. LiCl and CHIR-99021 had different effects on 1] CP clock parameters (amplitude, period, phase), 2] dexamethasone-induced phase shifts of the CP clock, and 3] dynamics of PER2 degradation and de novo accumulation. LiCl-induced phase delays were significantly reduced by chelerythrine, suggesting the involvement of PKC activity. The effects on the CP clock may be involved in the therapeutic effects of lithium and hypothetically improve brain function in psychiatric patients by aligning the function of the CP clock-related glymphatic system with the sleep-wake cycle. Importantly, our data argue for personalized timing of lithium treatment in BD patients.

Supplementary Pharmacotherapy for the Behavioral Abnormalities Caused by Stressors in Humans, Focused on Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

Used as a supplement to psychotherapy, pharmacotherapy that addresses all of the known metabolic and genetic contributions to the pathogenesis of psychiatric conditions caused by stressors would require an inordinate number of drugs. Far simpler is to address the abnormalities caused by those metabolic and genetic changes in the cell types of the brain that mediate the behavioral abnormality. Relevant data regarding the changed brain cell types are described in this article and are derived from subjects with the paradigmatic behavioral abnormality of PTSD and from subjects with traumatic brain injury or chronic traumatic encephalopathy. If this analysis is correct, then therapy is required that benefits all of the affected brain cell types; those are astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, synapses and neurons, endothelial cells, and microglia (the pro-inflammatory (M1) subtype requires switching to the anti-inflammatory (M2) subtype). Combinations are advocated using several drugs, erythropoietin, fluoxetine, lithium, and pioglitazone, that benefit all of the five cell types, and that should be used to form a two-drug combination, suggested as pioglitazone with either fluoxetine or lithium. Clemastine, fingolimod, and memantine benefit four of the cell types, and one chosen from those could be added to the two-drug combination to form a three-drug combination. Using low doses of chosen drugs will limit both toxicity and drug-drug interactions. A clinical trial is required to validate both the advocated concept and the choice of drugs.

Low-Dose Lithium Supplementation Influences GSK3β Activity in a Brain Region Specific Manner in C57BL6 Male Mice

BACKGROUND

Lithium, a commonly used treatment for bipolar disorder, has been shown to have neuroprotective effects for other conditions including Alzheimer's disease via the inhibition of the enzyme glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK3). However, dose-dependent adverse effects of lithium are well-documented, highlighting the need to determine if low doses of lithium can reliably reduce GSK3 activity.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of a low-dose lithium supplementation on GSK3 activity in the brain of an early, diet-induced Alzheimer's disease model.

METHODS

Male C57BL/6J mice were divided into either a 6-week or 12-week study. In the 6-week study, mice were fed a chow diet or a chow diet with lithium-supplemented drinking water (10 mg/kg/day) for 6 weeks. Alternatively, in the 12-week study, mice were fed a chow diet, a high-fat diet (HFD), or a HFD with lithium-supplemented drinking water for 12 weeks. Prefrontal cortex and hippocampal tissues were collected for analysis.

RESULTS

Results demonstrated reduced GSK3 activity in the prefrontal cortex as early as 6 weeks of lithium supplementation, in the absence of inhibitory phosphorylation changes. Further, lithium supplementation in an obese model reduced prefrontal cortex GSK3 activity as well as improved insulin sensitivity.

CONCLUSION

Collectively, these data provide evidence for low-dose lithium supplementation to inhibit GSK3 activity in the brain. Moreover, these results indicate that GSK3 activity can be inhibited despite any changes in phosphorylation. These findings contribute to an overall greater understanding of low-dose lithium's ability to influence GSK3 activity in the brain and its potential as an Alzheimer's disease prophylactic.

Formulating treatment of major psychiatric disorders: algorithm targets the dominantly affected brain cell-types

BACKGROUND

Pharmacotherapy for most psychiatric conditions was developed from serendipitous observations of benefit from drugs prescribed for different reasons. An algorithmic approach to formulating pharmacotherapy is proposed, based upon which combination of changed activities by brain cell-types is dominant for any particular condition, because those cell-types contain and surrogate for genetic, metabolic and environmental information, that has affected their function. The algorithm performs because functions of some or all the affected cell-types benefit from several available drugs: clemastine, dantrolene, erythropoietin, fingolimod, fluoxetine, lithium, memantine, minocycline, pioglitazone, piracetam, and riluzole PROCEDURES/FINDINGS: Bipolar disorder, major depressive disorder, schizophrenia, Alzheimer's disease, and post-traumatic stress disorder, illustrate the algorithm; for them, literature reviews show that no single combination of altered cell-types accounts for all cases; but they identify, for each condition, which combination occurs most frequently, i.e., dominates, as compared with other possible combinations. Knowing the dominant combination of altered cell-types in a particular condition, permits formulation of therapy with combinations of drugs taken from the above list. The percentage of patients who might benefit from that therapy, depends upon the frequency with which the dominant combination occurs in patients with that particular condition.

CONCLUSIONS

Knowing the dominant combination of changed cell types in psychiatric conditions, permits an algorithmically formulated, rationally-based treatment. Different studies of the same condition often produce discrepant results; all might be correct, because identical clinical phenotypes result from different combinations of impaired cell-types, thus producing different results. Clinical trials would validate both the proposed concept and choice of drugs.

Beyond its Psychiatric Use: The Benefits of Low-dose Lithium Supplementation

Lithium is most well-known for its mood-stabilizing effects in the treatment of bipolar disorder. Due to its narrow therapeutic window (0.5-1.2 mM serum concentration), there is a stigma associated with lithium treatment and the adverse effects that can occur at therapeutic doses. However, several studies have indicated that doses of lithium under the predetermined therapeutic dose used in bipolar disorder treatment may have beneficial effects not only in the brain but across the body. Currently, literature shows that low-dose lithium (≤0.5 mM) may be beneficial for cardiovascular, musculoskeletal, metabolic, and cognitive function, as well as inflammatory and antioxidant processes of the aging body. There is also some evidence of low-dose lithium exerting a similar and sometimes synergistic effect on these systems. This review summarizes these findings with a focus on low-dose lithium's potential benefits on the aging process and age-related diseases of these systems, such as cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis, sarcopenia, obesity and type 2 diabetes, Alzheimer's disease, and the chronic low-grade inflammatory state known as inflammaging. Although lithium's actions have been widely studied in the brain, the study of the potential benefits of lithium, particularly at a low dose, is still relatively novel. Therefore, this review aims to provide possible mechanistic insights for future research in this field.

Fluoxetine plus lithium for treatment of mental health impairment in Long Covid

Purposes

(1) To summarize the mental conditions that may accompany persistent symptoms following acute infection by SARS-CoV-2, often termed Long Covid; (2) to formulate treatment based upon the brain cells that are dominantly affected.

Methods

(1) Review the reports relating to the mental symptoms occurring in Long Covid. (2) Review the drugs that address the brain cells affected in Long Covid, and suggest pharmacotherapy for those patients whose response to psychotherapy is suboptimal.

Results

Long Covid affects ~ 10% of patients infected by SARS-CoV-2, and mental symptoms affect ~ 20% of persons with Long Covid. The brain cell-types that have been demonstrated as dominantly affected in Long Covid are astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, neurons, endothelial cells/pericytes, and microglia. Lithium and fluoxetine each address all of those four cell-types. Low dosage of each is likely to be well-tolerated and to cause neither clinically important adverse events (AE) nor serious adverse events (SAE).

Conclusion

For those patients whose response to psychotherapy is suboptimal, lithium and fluoxetine should be administered in combination for both depth of benefit and reduction of dosages.

Lithium Biological Action Mechanisms after Ischemic Stroke

Lithium is a source of great scientific interest because although it has such a simple structure, relatively easy-to-analyze chemistry, and well-established physical properties, the plethora of effects on biological systems—which influence numerous cellular and molecular processes through not entirely explained mechanisms of action—generate a mystery that modern science is still trying to decipher. Lithium has multiple effects on neurotransmitter-mediated receptor signaling, ion transport, signaling cascades, hormonal regulation, circadian rhythm, and gene expression. The biochemical mechanisms of lithium action appear to be multifactorial and interrelated with the functioning of several enzymes, hormones, vitamins, and growth and transformation factors. The widespread and chaotic marketing of lithium salts in potions and mineral waters, always at inadequate concentrations for various diseases, has contributed to the general disillusionment with empirical medical hypotheses about the therapeutic role of lithium. Lithium salts were first used therapeutically in 1850 to relieve the symptoms of gout, rheumatism, and kidney stones. In 1949, Cade was credited with discovering the sedative effect of lithium salts in the state of manic agitation, but frequent cases of intoxication accompanied the therapy. In the 1960s, lithium was shown to prevent manic and also depressive recurrences. This prophylactic effect was first demonstrated in an open-label study using the “mirror” method and was later (after 1970) confirmed by several placebo-controlled double-blind studies. Lithium prophylaxis was similarly effective in bipolar and also unipolar patients. In 1967, the therapeutic value of lithemia was determined, included in the range of 0.5–1.5 mEq/L. Recently, new therapeutic perspectives on lithium are connected with improved neurological outcomes after ischemic stroke. The effects of lithium on the development and maintenance of neuroprotection can be divided into two categories: short-term effects and long-term effects. Unfortunately, the existing studies do not fully explain the lithium biological action mechanisms after ischemic stroke.

Lithium Benzoate Exerts Neuroprotective Effect by Improving Mitochondrial Function, Attenuating Reactive Oxygen Species, and Protecting Cognition and Memory in an Animal Model of Alzheimer’s Disease

Background:

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a multifactorial neurodegenerative disease affecting many cellular pathways, including protein aggregation, mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress (OS), and neuroinflammation. Currently, no effective treatment for AD exists.

Objective:

We aim to determine the effect of lithium benzoate (LiBen) in protecting neurons from amyloid-β (Aβ) or other neurotoxin insults.

Methods:

Primary rat cortical neurons co-treated with neurotoxins and LiBen were used to examine its effect in cell viability, reactive oxygen species (ROS) clearance, and mitochondrial functions by MTT, CellRox fluorescence staining, and seahorse assay. Then, Barnes maze and prepulse inhibition test were performed in APP/PS1 mice that received chronic LiBen treatment to assess its effect on cognitive protection. Oral bioavailability of LiBen was also assessed by pharmacokinetic study in rat plasma.

Results:

In this study, we discovered that LiBen can attenuate cellular ROS level, improve mitochondrial function, increase cell viability against multiple different insults of mitochondrial dysfunction, Aβ accumulation, and neuroinflammation, and promote neurogenesis. We demonstrated that LiBen has advantages over lithium or sodium benzoate alone as LiBen displays superior neuroprotective efficacy and oral bioavailability than the other two agents when being applied either alone or in combination. Furthermore, chronic administration of LiBen showed protection for cognition as well as spatial memory and reduced the senile plaque deposition in brains of AD animal models.

Conclusion:

LiBen stands as a promising therapeutic agent for improving cognition and delaying the progression of AD.

Insulin signaling as a therapeutic mechanism of lithium in bipolar disorder

In this paper, we propose that lithium may exert its therapeutic effect in bipolar disorder by acting on insulin signaling pathways. Specifically, we assess the importance of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Protein Kinase B (PI3K/Akt) insulin signaling pathway and we assess how the action of lithium on both glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK3) and the phosphatidylinositol cycle may lead to mood stabilization mediated by PI3K/Akt insulin signaling. We also highlight evidence that several other actions of lithium (including effects on Akt, Protein kinase C (PKC), and sodium myo-inositol transporters) are putative mediators of insulin signaling. This novel mode of action of lithium is consistent with an emerging consensus that energy dysregulation represents a core deficit in bipolar disorder. It may also provide context for the significant co-morbidity between bipolar disorder, type 2 diabetes, and other forms of metabolic illness characterized by impaired glucose metabolism. It is suggested that developments in assessing neuronal insulin signaling using extracellular vesicles would allow for this hypothesis to be tested in bipolar disorder patients.

Potential mechanisms underlying lithium treatment for Alzheimer's disease and COVID-19

Disruption of intracellular Ca2+ homeostasis plays an important role as an upstream pathology in Alzheimer's disease (AD), and correction of Ca2+ dysregulation has been increasingly proposed as a target of future effective disease-modified drugs for treating AD. Calcium dysregulation is also an upstream pathology for the COVID-19 virus SARS-CoV-2 infection and replication, leading to host cell damage. Clinically available drugs that can inhibit the disturbed intracellular Ca2+ homeostasis have been repurposed to treat COVID-19 patients. This narrative review aims at exploring the underlying mechanism by which lithium, a first line drug for the treatment of bipolar disorder, inhibits Ca2+ dysregulation and associated downstream pathology in both AD and COVID-19. It is suggested that lithium can be repurposed to treat AD patients, especially those afflicted with COVID-19.

Dynamic insulin-stimulated mTOR/GSK3 signaling in peripheral immune cells: Preliminary evidence for an association with lithium response in bipolar disorder

INTRODUCTION

A key mechanism of lithium is the inhibition of glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK3β) and activation of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), two contributors to insulin signaling. We explored the relationship between these markers and clinical response to lithium in bipolar disorder (BD).

METHODS

Thirty-four subjects with BD who had been taking lithium for ≥2 years and had a maintenance lithium Alda score defined as either high (≥7; n = 20) or low (≤2; n = 14) were included in the study. Baseline protein expression of GSK3β and mTOR (total and phosphorylated (p)) was obtained from a buffy coat. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from a subset of each group (n = 11) were stimulated with insulin (10 µg) and change in protein expression was determined using Western blot.

RESULTS

In buffy coat samples, significantly higher levels of pmTOR were present in subjects with an Alda score ≤2 (lithium non-responsive), relative to those with scores ≥7 (lithium-responsive). No differences were observed for pGSK3β. In contrast, functional PBMC responses to 5 min of insulin stimulation demonstrated robust increases in pGSK3β (87.05 ± 43.41%) and pmTOR (105.7 ± 66.48%) in the lithium responsive group only. This contrasted observed decreases in pGSK3β (34.08 ± 16.12%) and pmTOR (37.84 ± 14.39%) 5 mins post-insulin in non-responders.

CONCLUSIONS

Dynamic increases in pmTOR and pGSK3β post-insulin stimulation may reflect an immunometabolic state that facilitates lithium response. Further prospective analyses are needed to replicate and extend these preliminary findings and further investigate the role of insulin signaling in lithium response in BD.

Glycogen Synthase Kinase-3 Inhibitors: Preclinical and Clinical Focus on CNS-A Decade Onward

The protein kinase, GSK-3, participates in diverse biological processes and is now recognized a promising drug discovery target in treating multiple pathological conditions. Over the last decade, a range of newly developed GSK-3 inhibitors of diverse chemotypes and inhibition modes has been developed. Even more conspicuous is the dramatic increase in the indications that were tested from mood and behavior disorders, autism and cognitive disabilities, to neurodegeneration, brain injury and pain. Indeed, clinical and pre-clinical studies were largely expanded uncovering new mechanisms and novel insights into the contribution of GSK-3 to neurodegeneration and central nerve system (CNS)-related disorders. In this review we summarize new developments in the field and describe the use of GSK-3 inhibitors in the variety of CNS disorders. This remarkable volume of information being generated undoubtedly reflects the great interest, as well as the intense hope, in developing potent and safe GSK-3 inhibitors in clinical practice.

Dose-dependent transcriptional effects of lithium and adverse effect burden in a psychiatric cohort

Lithium is the first-line treatment for bipolar disorder (BD), but there is a large variation in response rate and adverse effects. Although the molecular effects of lithium have been studied extensively, the specific mechanisms of action remain unclear. In particular, the molecular changes underlying lithium adverse effects are little known. Multiple linear regression analyses of lithium serum concentrations and global gene expression levels in whole blood were carried out using a large case-control sample (n = 1450). Self-reported adverse effects of lithium were assessed with the "Udvalg for Kliniske Undersøgelser" (UKU) adverse effect rating scale, and regression analysis was used to identify significant associations between lithium-related genes and six of the most common adverse effects. Serum concentrations of lithium were significantly associated with the expression levels of 52 genes (FDR < 0.01), largely replicating previous results. We found 32 up-regulated genes and 20 down-regulated genes in lithium users compared to non-users. The down-regulated gene set was enriched for several processes related to the translational machinery. Two adverse effects were significantly associated (p < 0.01) with three or more lithium-associated genes: tremor (FAM13A-AS1, FAR2, ITGAX, RWDD1, and STARD10) and xerostomia (ANKRD13A, FAR2, RPS8, and RWDD1). The adverse effect association with the largest effect was between CAMK1D expression and nausea/vomiting. These results suggest putative transcriptional mechanisms that may predict lithium adverse effects, and could thus have a large potential for informing clinical practice.

Lithium modulates multiple tau kinases with distinct effects in cortical and hippocampal neurons according to concentration ranges

The hyperphosphorylation of tau is a central mechanism in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Lithium is a potent inhibitor of glycogen synthase kinase-3beta (GSK3β), the most important tau kinase in neurons, and may also affect tau phosphorylation by modifying the expression and/or activity of other kinases, such as protein kinase A (PKA), Akt (PKB), and calcium calmodulin kinase-II (CaMKII). The aim of the present study is to determine the effect of chronic lithium treatment on the protein expression of tau and its major kinases in cortical and hippocampal neurons, at distinct working concentrations. Primary cultures of cortical and hippocampal neurons were treated with sub-therapeutic (0.02 mM and 0.2 mM) and therapeutic (2 mM) concentrations of lithium for 7 days. Protein expression of tau and tau-kinases was determined by immunoblotting. An indirect estimate of GSK3β activity was determined by the GSK3β ratio (rGSKβ). Statistically significant increments in the protein expression of tau and CaMKII were observed both in cortical and hippocampal neurons treated with subtherapeutic doses of lithium. GSK3β activity was increased in cortical, but decreased in hippocampal neurons. Distinct patterns of changes in the expression of the remaining tau tau-kinases were observed: in cortical neurons, lithium treatment was associated with consistent decrements in Akt and PKA, whereas hippocampal neurons displayed increased protein expression of Akt and decreased PKA. Our results suggest that chronic lithium treatment may yield distinct biological effects depending on the concentration range, with regional specificity. We further suggest that hippocampal neurons may be more sensitive to the effect of lithium, presenting with changes in the expression of tau-related proteins at subtherapeutic doses, which may not be mirrored by the effects observed in cortical neurons.

Huperzine A and Its Neuroprotective Molecular Signaling in Alzheimer's Disease

Huperzine A (HupA), an alkaloid found in the club moss Huperzia serrata, has been used for centuries in Chinese folk medicine to treat dementia. The effects of this alkaloid have been attributed to its ability to inhibit the cholinergic enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE), acting as an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor (AChEI). The biological functions of HupA have been studied both in vitro and in vivo, and its role in neuroprotection appears to be a good therapeutic candidate for Alzheimer´s disease (AD). Here, we summarize the neuroprotective effects of HupA on AD, with an emphasis on its interactions with different molecular signaling avenues, such as the Wnt signaling, the pre- and post-synaptic region mechanisms (synaptotagmin, neuroligins), the amyloid precursor protein (APP) processing, the amyloid-β peptide (Aβ) accumulation, and mitochondrial protection. Our goal is to provide an integrated overview of the molecular mechanisms through which HupA affects AD.

Effect of Lithium Drug on Binding Affinities of Glycogen Synthase Kinase-3 β to Its Network Partners: A New Computational Approach

Finding new methods to study the effect of small molecules on protein interaction networks provides us with invaluable tools in the fields of pharmacodynamics and drug design. Lithium is an antimanic drug that has been used for the treatment of bipolar disorder for more than 60 years. Here, we utilized a new approach to study the effect of lithium as a drug on the protein interaction network of GSK-3β as a hub protein and computed the affinities of GSK-3β to its partners in the presence of lithium or sodium ions. For this purpose, ensembles of GSK-3β protein structures were created in the presence of either lithium or sodium ions using adaptive tempering molecular dynamics simulations. The protein binding patches of GSK-3β for its partners were determined, and finally, the affinity of each binding patch to the related partner was computed for structures of ensembles using a monomer-based approach. Besides, by comparing structural dynamics of GSK-3β during MD simulations in the presence of LiCl and NaCl, we suggested a new mechanism for the inhibitory effect of lithium on GSK-3β.

Autism-associated SHANK3 mutations impair maturation of neuromuscular junctions and striated muscles

Heterozygous mutations of the gene encoding the postsynaptic protein SHANK3 are associated with syndromic forms of autism spectrum disorders (ASDs). One of the earliest clinical symptoms in SHANK3-associated ASD is neonatal skeletal muscle hypotonia. This symptom can be critical for the early diagnosis of affected children; however, the mechanism mediating hypotonia in ASD is not completely understood. Here, we used a combination of patient-derived human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs), Shank3Δ11(-/-) mice, and Phelan-McDermid syndrome (PMDS) muscle biopsies from patients of different ages to analyze the role of SHANK3 on motor unit development. Our results suggest that the hypotonia in SHANK3 deficiency might be caused by dysfunctions in all elements of the voluntary motor system: motoneurons, neuromuscular junctions (NMJs), and striated muscles. We found that SHANK3 localizes in Z-discs in the skeletal muscle sarcomere and co-immunoprecipitates with α-ACTININ. SHANK3 deficiency lead to shortened Z-discs and severe impairment of acetylcholine receptor clustering in hiPSC-derived myotubes and in muscle from Shank3Δ11(-/-) mice and patients with PMDS, indicating a crucial role for SHANK3 in the maturation of NMJs and striated muscle. Functional motor defects in Shank3Δ11(-/-) mice could be rescued with the troponin activator Tirasemtiv that sensitizes muscle fibers to calcium. Our observations give insight into the function of SHANK3 besides the central nervous system and imply potential treatment strategies for SHANK3-associated ASD.

Lithium: A therapeutic option in Alzheimer's disease and its prodromal stages?

Experimental data reveal that lithium is capable of attenuating Alzheimer's disease pathology and stimulating adult hippocampal neurogenesis. Clinical studies show procognitive effects in lithium-treated patients with amnestic MCI and Alzheimer's disease. These procognitive effects are associated with changes of CSF biomarkers of Alzheimer's disease. After 3 months of lithium treatment with low lithium levels, a slowing of cognitive decline is observed in patients with Alzheimer's disease. In patients with amnestic MCI with low-dose lithium treatment a trend of a reduced Alzheimer's disease conversion rate and longer cognitive stability was reported. Thus, lithium might be a therapeutic option in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease and its prodromal stages. But its therapeutic efficacy needs further evaluation. Further studies should include head-to-head comparisons with approved dementia treatment options. Due to lithium's therapeutic toxicity a thorough preselection of patients and a closely therapeutic monitoring is necessary. This manuscript is based on a literature review.

Activating transcription factor 4-dependent lactate dehydrogenase activation as a protective response to amyloid beta toxicity

Accumulation of amyloid beta peptides is thought to initiate the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. However, the precise mechanisms mediating their neurotoxicity are unclear. Our microarray analyses show that, in Drosophila models of amyloid beta 42 toxicity, genes involved in the unfolded protein response and metabolic processes are upregulated in brain. Comparison with the brain transcriptome of early-stage Alzheimer's patients revealed a common transcriptional signature, but with generally opposing directions of gene expression changes between flies and humans. Among these differentially regulated genes, lactate dehydrogenase (Ldh) was up-regulated by the greatest degree in amyloid beta 42 flies and the human orthologues (LDHA and LDHB) were down-regulated in patients. Functional analyses revealed that either over-expression or inhibition of Ldh by RNA interference (RNAi) slightly exacerbated climbing defects in both healthy and amyloid beta 42-induced Drosophila. This suggests that metabolic responses to lactate dehydrogenase must be finely-tuned, and that its observed upregulation following amyloid beta 42 production could potentially represent a compensatory protection to maintain pathway homeostasis in this model, with further manipulation leading to detrimental effects. The increased Ldh expression in amyloid beta 42 flies was regulated partially by unfolded protein response signalling, as ATF4 RNAi diminished the transcriptional response and enhanced amyloid beta 42-induced climbing phenotypes. Further functional studies are required to determine whether Ldh upregulation provides compensatory neuroprotection against amyloid beta 42-induced loss of activating transcription factor 4 activity and endoplasmatic reticulum stress. Our study thus reveals dysregulation of lactate dehydrogenase signalling in Drosophila models and patients with Alzheimer's disease, which may lead to a detrimental loss of metabolic homeostasis. Importantly, we observed that down-regulation of ATF4-dependent endoplasmic reticulum-stress signalling in this context appears to prevent Ldh compensation and to exacerbate amyloid beta 42-dependent neuronal toxicity. Our findings, therefore, suggest caution in the use of therapeutic strategies focussed on down-regulation of this pathway for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease, since its natural response to the toxic peptide may induce beneficial neuroprotective effects.

Is There Justification to Treat Neurodegenerative Disorders by Repurposing Drugs? The Case of Alzheimer's Disease, Lithium, and Autophagy

Lithium is the prototype mood-stabilizer used for acute and long-term treatment of bipolar disorder. Cumulated translational research of lithium indicated the drug's neuroprotective characteristics and, thereby, has raised the option of repurposing it as a drug for neurodegenerative diseases. Lithium's neuroprotective properties rely on its modulation of homeostatic mechanisms such as inflammation, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, autophagy, and apoptosis. This myriad of intracellular responses are, possibly, consequences of the drug's inhibition of the enzymes inositol-monophosphatase (IMPase) and glycogen-synthase-kinase (GSK)-3. Here we review lithium's neurobiological properties as evidenced by its neurotrophic and neuroprotective properties, as well as translational studies in cells in culture, in animal models of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and in patients, discussing the rationale for the drug's use in the treatment of AD.

[Lithium in the psychopharmacology of affective disorders and mechanisms of its effects on cellular physiology]

However, despite successful use of lithium in the treatment of affective disorders for almost 40 years, the mechanisms of its therapeutic action are still poorly understood. This review presents and summarizes the current literature about the use of lithium in treatment of affective disorders, as well as its effects on cellular physiology, with a separate description of the effect of this ion on the functioning of nerve tissue and ion-molecular mechanisms.

Neuronal-Glial Interaction in a Triple-Transgenic Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease: Gene Ontology and Lithium Pathways

Neuronal-glial interactions are critical for brain homeostasis, and disruption of this process may lead to excessive glial activation and inadequate pro-inflammatory responses. Abnormalities in neuronal-glial interactions have been reported in the pathophysiology of Alzheimer’s disease (AD), where lithium has been shown to exert neuroprotective effects, including the up-regulation of cytoprotective proteins. In the present study, we characterize by Gene Ontology (GO) the signaling pathways related to neuronal-glial interactions in response to lithium in a triple-transgenic mouse model of AD (3×-TgAD). Mice were treated for 8 months with lithium carbonate (Li) supplemented to chow, using two dose ranges to yield subtherapeutic working concentrations (Li1, 1.0 g/kg; and Li2, 2.0 g/kg of chow), or with standard chow (Li0). The hippocampi were removed and analyzed by proteomics. A neuronal-glial interaction network was created by a systematic literature search, and the selected genes were submitted to STRING, a functional network to analyze protein interactions. Proteomics data and neuronal-glial interactomes were compared by GO using ClueGo (Cytoscape plugin) with p ≤ 0.05. The proportional effects of neuron-glia interactions were determined on three GO domains: (i) biological process; (ii) cellular component; and (iii) molecular function. The gene ontology of this enriched network of genes was further stratified according to lithium treatments, with statistically significant effects observed in the Li2 group (as compared to controls) for the GO domains biological process and cellular component. In the former, there was an even distribution of the interactions occurring at the following functions: “positive regulation of protein localization to membrane,” “regulation of protein localization to cell periphery,” “oligodendrocyte differentiation,” and “regulation of protein localization to plasma membrane.” In cellular component, interactions were also balanced for “myelin sheath” and “rough endoplasmic reticulum.” We conclude that neuronal-glial interactions are implicated in the neuroprotective response mediated by lithium in the hippocampus of AD-transgenic mice. The effect of lithium on homeostatic pathways mediated by the interaction between neurons and glial cells are implicated in membrane permeability, protein synthesis and DNA repair, which may be relevant for the survival of nerve cells amidst AD pathology.

The potential for one drug, administered at the earliest preclinical stage, to prevent the subsequent decline of cognition that eventuates in dementia

In the process that eventuates in mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and ultimately in Alzheimer's dementia, the earliest identifiable change is in the function of synapses. If started at that early point in time, when there is subjective but not objective memory loss plus abnormal brain imaging with fluorodeoxyglucose and Pittsburgh compound B, treatment with a single drug directed at synaptic dysfunction might prevent development of cognitive impairment. Each of four drugs, dantrolene, lithium, minocycline, and piracetam, benefits synaptic impairment. This presentation has two sections. In the first, evidence is discussed at length, for abnormality in the axo-spinous synapse as being the earliest change before objective cognitive decline. The second section explains the benefits to synapses provided by the four mentioned drugs. Dantrolene and lithium perhaps have the strongest supporting data for use as single agents: their efficacy should be subjected to clinical trial.

Lithium promotes proliferation and suppresses migration of Schwann cells

Schwann cell proliferation, migration and remyelination of regenerating axons contribute to regeneration after peripheral nervous system injury. Lithium promotes remyelination by Schwann cells and improves peripheral nerve regeneration. However, whether lithium modulates other phenotypes of Schwann cells, especially their proliferation and migration remains elusive. In the current study, primary Schwann cells from rat sciatic nerve stumps were cultured and exposed to 0, 5, 10, 15, or 30 mM lithium chloride (LiCl) for 24 hours. The effects of LiCl on Schwann cell proliferation and migration were examined using the Cell Counting Kit-8, 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine, Transwell and wound healing assays. Cell Counting Kit-8 and 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine assays showed that 5, 10, 15, and 30 mM LiCl significantly increased the viability and proliferation rate of Schwann cells. Transwell-based migration assays and wound healing assays showed that 10, 15, and 30 mM LiCl suppressed the migratory ability of Schwann cells. Furthermore, the effects of LiCl on the proliferation and migration phenotypes of Schwann cells were mostly dose-dependent. These data indicate that lithium treatment significantly promotes the proliferation and inhibits the migratory ability of Schwann cells. This conclusion will inform strategies to promote the repair and regeneration of peripheral nerves. All of the animal experiments in this study were ethically approved by the Administration Committee of Experimental Animal Center of Nantong University, China (approval No. 20170320-017) on March 2, 2017.

Efficacy and Safety of Glycogen Synthase Kinase 3 Inhibitors for Alzheimer's Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

BACKGROUND

The efficacy and safety of glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK-3) inhibitors in patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD) is unknown.

OBJECTIVE

A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) to test GSK-3 inhibitors on AD patients.

METHODS

We included RCTs of GSK-3 inhibitors in AD patients and subjects with mild cognitive impairment (MCI), using cognitive function scores as a primary measure.

RESULTS

Five RCTs (three RCTs using lithium and two RCTs using tideglusib) with 568 patients were included. There was no significant difference in cognitive function scores between the GSK-3 inhibitors and placebo groups [standardized mean difference (SMD) = -0.25, p = 0.11, I2 = 55% ]. However, significant heterogeneity remained. A sensitivity analysis revealed that the lithium subgroup was more effective on cognitive function scores than placebo for AD and MCI (lithium subgroup: SMD = -0.41, p = 0.04; tideglusib subgroup: SMD = -0.02, p = 0.89). Moreover, a meta-regression analysis showed that the effect size of GSK-3 inhibitors on cognitive function scores was associated with study duration (coefficient, -0.0116). For safety outcomes, tideglusib was associated with a higher incidence of increased aspartate aminotransferase than placebo. There were no significant differences in other secondary outcomes between treatments.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggested that GSK-3 inhibitors were ineffective in treating AD and MCI; however, several studies included in the present meta-analysis were small, and future studies using a larger sample size are needed.

Mesocortical BDNF signaling mediates antidepressive-like effects of lithium

Lithium has been used to treat major depressive disorder, yet the neural circuit mechanisms underlying this therapeutic effect remain unknown. Here, we demonstrated that the ventral tegmental area (VTA) dopamine (DA) neurons that project to the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), but not to nucleus accumbens (NAc), contributed to the antidepressive-like effects of lithium. Projection-specific electrophysiological recordings revealed that high concentrations of lithium increased firing rates in mPFC-, but not NAc-, projecting VTA DA neurons in mice treated with chronic unpredictable mild stress (CMS). In parallel, chronic administration of high-dose lithium in CMS mice restored the firing properties of mPFC-projecting DA neurons, and also rescued CMS-induced depressive-like behaviors. Nevertheless, chronic lithium treatment was insufficient to change the basal firing rates in NAc-projecting VTA DA neurons. Furthermore, chemogenetic activation of mPFC-, but not NAc-, projecting VTA DA neurons mimicked the antidepressive-like effects of lithium in CMS mice. Chemogenetic downregulation of VTA-mPFC DA neurons' firing activity abolished the antidepressive-like effects of lithium in CMS mice. Finally, we found that the antidepressant-like effects induced by high-dose lithium were mediated by BNDF signaling in the mesocortical DA circuit. Together, these results demonstrated the role of mesocortical DA projection in antidepressive-like effects of lithium and established a circuit foundation for lithium-based antidepressive treatment.

Autophagy in trimethyltin-induced neurodegeneration

Autophagy is a degradative process playing an important role in removing misfolded or aggregated proteins, clearing damaged organelles, such as mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum, as well as eliminating intracellular pathogens. The autophagic process is important for balancing sources of energy at critical developmental stages and in response to nutrient stress. Recently, autophagy has been involved in the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative diseases although its beneficial (pro-survival) or detrimental (pro-death) role remains controversial. In the present review, we discuss the role of autophagy following intoxication with trimethyltin (TMT), an organotin compound that induces severe hippocampal neurodegeneration associated with astrocyte and microglia activation. TMT is considered a useful tool to study the molecular mechanisms occurring in human neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease and temporal lobe epilepsy. This is also relevant in the field of environmental safety, since organotin compounds are used as heat stabilizers in polyvinyl chloride polymers, industrial and agricultural biocides, and as industrial chemical catalysts.

Therapeutic Targeting of Proteostasis in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis-a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Preclinical Research

Background: Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a rapidly progressive fatal neurodegenerative condition. There are no effective treatments. The only globally licensed medication, that prolongs life by 2–3 months, was approved by the FDA in 1995. One reason for the absence of effective treatments is disease heterogeneity noting that ALS is clinically heterogeneous and can be considered to exist on a neuropathological spectrum with frontotemporal dementia. Despite this significant clinical heterogeneity, protein misfolding has been identified as a unifying pathological feature in these cases. Based on this shared pathophysiology, we carried out a systematic review and meta-analysis to assess the therapeutic efficacy of compounds that specifically target protein misfolding in preclinical studies of both ALS and FTD.

Methods: Three databases: (i) PubMed, (ii) MEDLINE, and (iii) EMBASE were searched. All studies comparing the effect of treatments targeting protein misfolding in pre-clinical ALS or FTD models to a control group were retrieved.

Results: Systematic review identified 70 pre-clinical studies investigating the effects of therapies targeting protein misfolding on survival. Meta-analysis revealed that targeting protein misfolding did significantly improve survival compared to untreated controls (p < 0.001, df = 68, α = 0.05, CI 1.05–1.16), with no evidence of heterogeneity between studies (I² = 0%). Further subgroup analyses, evaluating the effect of timing of these interventions, showed that, only treating prior to symptom onset (n = 33), significantly improved survival (p < 0.001, df = 31, α = 0.05, CI 1.08–1.29), although this likely reflects the inadequate sample size of later time points. Furthermore, arimoclomol was found to significantly reduce secondary outcome measures including: (i) histological outcomes, (ii) behavioral outcomes, and (iii) biochemical outcomes (p < 0.005).

Conclusions: This analysis supports the hypothesis that protein misfolding plays an important role in the pathogenesis of ALS and FTD and that targeting protein misfolding, at least in pre-clinical models, can significantly improve survival, especially if such an intervention is administered prior to symptom onset.

Hippocampal and prefrontal cortical NMDA receptors mediate the interactive effects of olanzapine and lithium in memory retention in rats: the involvement of CAMKII-CREB signaling pathways

RATIONALE

Treatment of bipolar disorder (BPD) with lithium and olanzapine concurrent administration is a major medicine issue with the elusive neurobiological mechanisms underlying the cognitive function.

OBJECTIVE

To clarify the precise mechanisms involved, the possible role of the hippocampus (HPC) and prefrontal cortical (PFC) NMDA receptors and CAMKII-CREB signaling pathway in the interactive effects of lithium and olanzapine in memory consolidation was evaluated. The dorsal hippocampal CA1 regions of adult male Wistar rats were bilaterally cannulated and a step-through inhibitory avoidance apparatus was used to assess memory consolidation. The changes in p-CAMKII/CAMKII and p-CREB/CREB ratio in the HPC and the PFC were measured by Western blot analysis.

RESULTS

Post-training administration of lithium (20, 30, and 40 mg/kg, i.p.) dose-dependently decreased memory consolidation whereas post-training administration olanzapine (2 and 5 mg/kg, i.p.) increased memory consolidation. Post-training administration of certain doses of olanzapine (1, 2, and 5 mg/kg, i.p.) dose-dependently improved lithium-induced memory impairment. Post-training administration of ineffective doses of the NMDA (10-5 and 10-4 μg/rat, intra-CA1) plus an ineffective dose of olanzapine (1 mg/kg, i.p.) dose-dependently improved the lithium-induced memory impairment. Post-training microinjection of ineffective doses of the NMDA (10-5 and 10-4 μg/rat, intra-CA1) dose-dependently potentiated the memory improvement induced by olanzapine (1 mg/kg, i.p.) on lithium-induced memory impairment which was associated with the enhancement of the levels of p-CAMKII and p-CREB in the HPC and the PFC. Post-training microinjection of ineffective doses of the noncompetitive NMDA receptor antagonist, MK-801 (0.0625 and 0.0125 μg/rat, intra-CA1), dose-dependently decreased the memory improvement induced by olanzapine (5 mg/kg, i.p.) on lithium-induced memory impairment which was related to the reduced levels of HPC and PFC CAMKII-CREB.

CONCLUSION

The results strongly revealed that there is a functional interaction among lithium and olanzapine through the HPC and the PFC NMDA receptor mechanism in memory consolidation which is mediated with the CAMKII-CREB signaling pathway.

Application of optogenetic Amyloid-β distinguishes between metabolic and physical damages in neurodegeneration

The brains of Alzheimer’s disease patients show a decrease in brain mass and a preponderance of extracellular Amyloid-β plaques. These plaques are formed by aggregation of polypeptides that are derived from the Amyloid Precursor Protein (APP). Amyloid-β plaques are thought to play either a direct or an indirect role in disease progression, however the exact role of aggregation and plaque formation in the aetiology of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is subject to debate as the biological effects of soluble and aggregated Amyloid-β peptides are difficult to separate in vivo. To investigate the consequences of formation of Amyloid-β oligomers in living tissues, we developed a fluorescently tagged, optogenetic Amyloid-β peptide that oligomerizes rapidly in the presence of blue light. We applied this system to the crucial question of how intracellular Amyloid-β oligomers underlie the pathologies of A. We use Drosophila, C. elegans and D. rerio to show that, although both expression and induced oligomerization of Amyloid-β were detrimental to lifespan and healthspan, we were able to separate the metabolic and physical damage caused by light-induced Amyloid-β oligomerization from Amyloid-β expression alone. The physical damage caused by Amyloid-β oligomers also recapitulated the catastrophic tissue loss that is a hallmark of late AD. We show that the lifespan deficit induced by Amyloid-β oligomers was reduced with Li⁺ treatment. Our results present the first model to separate different aspects of disease progression.

Alzheimer's disease is a progressive condition that damages the brain over time. The cause is not clear, but a toxic molecule called Amyloid-β peptide seems to play a part. It builds up in the brains of people with Alzheimer's disease, forming hard clumps called plaques. Yet, though the plaques are a hallmark of the disease, experimental treatments designed to break them down do not seem to help. This raises the question – do Amyloid-β plaques actually cause Alzheimer's disease?

Answering this question is not easy. One way to study the effect of amyloid plaques is to inject clumps of Amyloid-β peptides into model organisms. This triggers Alzheimer's-like brain damage, but it is not clear why. It remains difficult to tell the difference between the damage caused by the injected Amyloid-β peptides and the damage caused by the solid plaques that they form. For this, researchers need a way to trigger plaque formation directly inside animal brains. This would make it possible to test the effects of plaque-targeting treatments, like the drug lithium.

Optogenetics is a technique that uses light to control molecules in living animals. Hsien, Kaur et al. have now used this approach to trigger plaque formation by fusing light-sensitive proteins to Amyloid-β peptides in worms, fruit flies and zebrafish. This meant that the peptides clumped together to form plaques whenever the animals were exposed to blue light. This revealed that, while both the Amyloid-β peptides and the plaques caused damage, the plaques were much more toxic. They damaged cell metabolism and caused tissue loss that resembled late Alzheimer's disease in humans. To find out whether it was possible to test Alzheimer's treatments in these animals, Hsien, Kaur et al. treated them with the drug, lithium. This increased their lifespan, reversing some of the damage caused by the plaques.

Alzheimer's disease affects more than 46.8 million people worldwide and is the sixth leading cause of death in the USA. But, despite over 50 years of research, there is no cure. This new plaque-formation technique allows researchers to study the effects of amyloid plaques in living animals, providing a new way to test Alzheimer's treatments. This could be of particular help in studies of experimental drugs that aim to reduce plaque formation.

GSK3: A Kinase Balancing Promotion and Resolution of Inflammation

GSK3 has been implicated for years in the regulation of inflammation and addressed in a plethora of scientific reports using a variety of experimental (disease) models and approaches. However, the specific role of GSK3 in the inflammatory process is still not fully understood and controversially discussed. Following a detailed overview of structure, function, and various regulatory levels, this review focusses on the immunoregulatory functions of GSK3, including the current knowledge obtained from animal models. Its impact on pro-inflammatory cytokine/chemokine profiles, bacterial/viral infections, and the modulation of associated pro-inflammatory transcriptional and signaling pathways is discussed. Moreover, GSK3 contributes to the resolution of inflammation on multiple levels, e.g., via the regulation of pro-resolving mediators, the clearance of apoptotic immune cells, and tissue repair processes. The influence of GSK3 on the development of different forms of stimulation tolerance is also addressed. Collectively, the role of GSK3 as a kinase balancing the initiation/perpetuation and the amelioration/resolution of inflammation is highlighted.

Drug synergy as a strategy for compression of morbidity in a Caenorhabditis elegans model of Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia worldwide. AD is a multifactorial disease with simultaneous occurrence of several connected pathological processes including mitochondrial dysfunction and impaired proteostasis. Most of these are also implicated in organismal aging per se. The presence of separable pathological conditions poses the opportunity to try combination treatments that target these different processes separately. This approach may provide an effective strategy to target AD; therefore, we investigated whether a combination of metformin (targeting mitochondria and energy metabolism) and lithium (targeting proteostasis) could result in synergistic benefits. In this perspective paper, we looked for benefits in lifespan and healthspan using a transgenic nematode strain, GRU102, which expresses pan-neuronal human amyloid-beta (Aβ). Individually, metformin and lithium extended the lifespan of both non-transgenic GRU101 controls and GRU102. Combination treatment using metformin and lithium did not result in any synergistic increase in GRU102 lifespan, but this treatment did result in a significant compression of morbidity when compared with each individual drug, resulting in relative and absolute extension of healthspan. Despite over-expressing pathogenic human Aβ in their neurons, GRU102 worms treated with the combination treatment enjoyed longer lifespans and significantly compressed morbidity, even compared with untreated non-transgenic animals. These findings suggest combination treatment as a strategy to compress morbidity, and highlight the distinction between healthspan and lifespan.

Multifunctional compounds lithium chloride and methylene Blue attenuate the negative effects of diisopropylfluorophosphate on axonal transport in rat cortical neurons

Organophosphates (OPs) are valuable as pesticides in agriculture and for controlling deadly vector-borne illnesses; however, they are highly toxic and associated with many deleterious health effects in humans including long-term neurological impairments. Antidotal treatment regimens are available to combat the symptoms of acute OP toxicity, which result from the irreversible inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE). However, there are no established treatments for the long-term neurological consequences of OP exposure. In addition to AChE, OPs can negatively affect multiple protein targets as well as biological processes such as axonal transport. Given the fundamental nature of axonal transport to neuronal health, we rationalized that this process might serve as a general focus area for novel therapeutic strategies against OP toxicity. In the studies described here, we employed a multi-target, phenotypic screening, and drug repurposing strategy for the evaluations of potential novel OP-treatments using a primary neuronal culture model and time-lapse live imaging microscopy. Two multi-target compounds, lithium chloride (LiCl) and methylene blue (MB), which are FDA-approved for other indications, were evaluated for their ability to prevent the negative effects of the OP, diisopropylfluorophosphate (DFP) on axonal transport. The results indicated that both LiCl and MB prevented DFP-induced impairments in anterograde and retrograde axonal transport velocities in a concentration dependent manner. While in vivo studies will be required to confirm our in vitro findings, these experiments support the potential of LiCl and MB as repurposed drugs for the treatment of the long-term neurological deficits associated with OP exposure (currently an unmet medical need).