Consciousness, Cognition and the Neuronal Cytoskeleton - A New Paradigm Needed in Neuroscience

Surface code model for Fibonacci helical pathways of the Orch OR microtubule

The Objective Reduction (OR) theory suggested by Sir Roger Penrose presented a novel perspective on the measurement problem of quantum mechanics and consciousness. Subsequently, based on the assertion of anesthesiologist Dr. Hameroff, the theory proposed that the phenomenon of OR could also manifest in microtubules within neurons. This would, serve as the trigger for consciousness, thereby forming the basis of Orchestrated OR (Orch OR). The peculiarity of this theory lies in the claim that tubulin and its higher neuronal information structures are not simply additive, rather, they are formed in a topological manner. Specifically, higher information structure of tubulin, helical pathways are presumed to form an intersecting pattern in both left-handed and right-handed directions, following a repeating Fibonacci series (3, 5, 8, 13, …), and are interconnected with each other. There have been attempts to examine these unique characteristics. However, experimenting upon these quantum characteristics in the microtubule appears to be plagued by certain limitations. Therefore, this study proposed a surface code model to implement this biological model on a quantum computer, focusing on its quantum properties. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to attempt this. The study emphasizes that interpreting asymmetric Fibonacci helical pathways as logical qubits can stabilize surface code. In addition, we analyzed the conditions required for experimenting with this model based on the development of current quantum computer. Although the experimental feasibility of this study is dependents on future quantum computer development, it provides significant insights into Orch OR research by offering a novel perspective.

Two Levels of Integrated Information Theory: From Autonomous Systems to Conscious Life

Integrated Information Theory (IIT) is one of the most prominent candidates for a theory of consciousness, although it has received much criticism for trying to live up to expectations. Based on the relevance of three issues generalized from the developments of IITs, we have summarized the main ideas of IIT into two levels. At the second level, IIT claims to be strictly anchoring consciousness, but the first level on which it is based is more about autonomous systems or systems that have reached some other critical complexity. In this paper, we argue that the clear gap between the two levels of explanation of IIT has led to these criticisms and that its panpsychist tendency plays a crucial role in this. We suggest that the problems of IIT are far from being "pseudoscience", and by adding more necessary elements, when the first level is combined with the second level, IIT can genuinely move toward an appropriate theory of consciousness that can provide necessary and sufficient interpretations.

Microtubule-Stabilizer Epothilone B Delays Anesthetic-Induced Unconsciousness in Rats

Volatile anesthetics are currently believed to cause unconsciousness by acting on one or more molecular targets including neural ion channels, receptors, mitochondria, synaptic proteins, and cytoskeletal proteins. Anesthetic gases including isoflurane bind to cytoskeletal microtubules (MTs) and dampen their quantum optical effects, potentially contributing to causing unconsciousness. This possibility is supported by the finding that taxane chemotherapy consisting of MT-stabilizing drugs reduces the effectiveness of anesthesia during surgery in human cancer patients. In order to experimentally assess the contribution of MTs as functionally relevant targets of volatile anesthetics, we measured latencies to loss of righting reflex (LORR) under 4% isoflurane in male rats injected subcutaneously with vehicle or 0.75 mg/kg of the brain-penetrant MT-stabilizing drug epothilone B (epoB). EpoB-treated rats took an average of 69 s longer to become unconscious as measured by latency to LORR. This was a statistically significant difference corresponding to a standardized mean difference (Cohen's d) of 1.9, indicating a "large" normalized effect size. The effect could not be accounted for by tolerance from repeated exposure to isoflurane. Our results suggest that binding of the anesthetic gas isoflurane to MTs causes unconsciousness and loss of purposeful behavior in rats (and presumably humans and other animals). This finding is predicted by models that posit consciousness as a property of a quantum physical state of neural MTs.

Modeling of the quantum entangled state transfer protocol in the cell microtubules

In the work based on the quantum gates representation, the modeling of the quantum entangled state transfer protocol in the cell microtubules is carried out. It has been proved that considered data transmission can be determined as a mechanism that ensures the transfer of information through a quantum channel in microtubule tryptophans chain. The influence of external factors on the formation of entangled states is investigated. It is shown that the influence of the external environment has an ambiguous character and can constructively influence the formation and dynamics of entangled states. The research conducted in the work allowed to conclude that the processes of qubits transmission in microtubules in the special case could be defined as an analogue of the superdense coding protocol for similar biosystems.

Receptor-Independent Therapies for Forensic Detainees with Schizophrenia-Dementia Comorbidity

Forensic institutions throughout the world house patients with severe psychiatric illness and history of criminal violations. Improved medical care, hygiene, psychiatric treatment, and nutrition led to an unmatched longevity in this population, which previously lived, on average, 15 to 20 years shorter than the public at large. On the other hand, longevity has contributed to increased prevalence of age-related diseases, including neurodegenerative disorders, which complicate clinical management, increasing healthcare expenditures. Forensic institutions, originally intended for the treatment of younger individuals, are ill-equipped for the growing number of older offenders. Moreover, as antipsychotic drugs became available in 1950s and 1960s, we are observing the first generation of forensic detainees who have aged on dopamine-blocking agents. Although the consequences of long-term treatment with these agents are unclear, schizophrenia-associated gray matter loss may contribute to the development of early dementia. Taken together, increased lifespan and the subsequent cognitive deficit observed in long-term forensic institutions raise questions and dilemmas unencountered by the previous generations of clinicians. These include: does the presence of neurocognitive dysfunction justify antipsychotic dose reduction or discontinuation despite a lifelong history of schizophrenia and violent behavior? Should neurolipidomic interventions become the standard of care in elderly individuals with lifelong schizophrenia and dementia? Can patients with schizophrenia and dementia meet the Dusky standard to stand trial? Should neurocognitive disorders in the elderly with lifelong schizophrenia be treated differently than age-related neurodegeneration? In this article, we hypothesize that gray matter loss is the core symptom of schizophrenia which leads to dementia. We hypothesize further that strategies to delay or stop gray matter depletion would not only improve the schizophrenia sustained recovery, but also avert the development of major neurocognitive disorders in people living with schizophrenia. Based on this hypothesis, we suggest utilization of both receptor-dependent and independent therapeutics for chronic psychosis.

Simultaneity of consciousness with physical reality: the key that unlocks the mind-matter problem

The problem of explaining the relationship between subjective experience and physical reality remains difficult and unresolved. In most explanations, consciousness is epiphenomenal, without causal power. The most notable exception is Integrated Information Theory (IIT), which provides a causal explanation for consciousness. However, IIT relies on an identity between subjectivity and a particular type of physical structure, namely with an information structure that has intrinsic causal power greater than the sum of its parts. Any theory that relies on a psycho-phyiscal identity must eventually appeal to panpsychism, which undermines that theory's claim to be fundamental. IIT has recently pivoted towards a strong version of causal emergence, but macroscopic structures cannot be stronger causally than their microphysical parts without some new physical law or governing principle. The approach taken here is designed to uncover such a principle. The decisive argument is entirely deductive from initial premises that are phenomenologically certain. If correct, the arguments prove that conscious experience is sufficient to create additional degrees of causal freedom independently of the content of experience, and in a manner that is unpredictable and unobservable by any temporally sequential means. This provides a fundamental principle about consciousness, and a conceptual bridge between it and the physics describing what is experienced. The principle makes testable predictions about brain function, with notable differences from IIT, some of which are also empirically testable.

Reflexive structure of the conscious subject and the origin of language codes

The code paradigm in biological and social sciences arises to Aristotle. For conscious activity, Aristotle introduced the notion of reflexive self-awareness in sense perception. This reflexive process generates the codes that signify sensual perceptive events and constrain human behavior. Coding systems grow via the generation of hypertextual statements reflecting new meanings in the process defined by Marcello Barbieri as a codepoiesis. It results in the establishment of higher-level codes (metacodes) forming the semiotic screen that has a nature of the set of perceived objects internalized by the conscious subject in encoding the symbolic actions. The characteristic feature of the semiotic screen consists in its property of being shared between the communicating agents. A sufficient complexity of nervous system, through the appearance of mirror neurons that are fired both when a subject executes certain action and when he observes another subject performing a similar action, represents a prerequisite for the emergence of reflexive codes in evolution. The codes appearing as a result of reflexive awareness and establishing different sociotypes, span from the symbolic systems of art and music through the common language to the formal language of logic and mathematics. Social dynamics is based on the implementation of reflexive coding activity and results in the growth and decay of social systems and civilizations.

Thinking about the action potential: the nerve signal as a window to the physical principles guiding neuronal excitability

Ever since the work of Edgar Adrian, the neuronal action potential has been considered as an electric signal, modeled and interpreted using concepts and theories lent from electronic engineering. Accordingly, the electric action potential, as the prime manifestation of neuronal excitability, serving processing and reliable "long distance" communication of the information contained in the signal, was defined as a non-linear, self-propagating, regenerative, wave of electrical activity that travels along the surface of nerve cells. Thus, in the ground-breaking theory and mathematical model of Hodgkin and Huxley (HH), linking Nernst's treatment of the electrochemistry of semi-permeable membranes to the physical laws of electricity and Kelvin's cable theory, the electrical characteristics of the action potential are presented as the result of the depolarization-induced, voltage- and time-dependent opening and closure of ion channels in the membrane allowing the passive flow of charge, particularly in the form of Na+ and K+ -ions, into and out of the neuronal cytoplasm along the respective electrochemical ion gradient. In the model, which treats the membrane as a capacitor and ion channels as resistors, these changes in ionic conductance across the membrane cause a sudden and transient alteration of the transmembrane potential, i.e., the action potential, which is then carried forward and spreads over long(er) distances by means of both active and passive conduction dependent on local current flow by diffusion of Na+ ion in the neuronal cytoplasm. However, although highly successful in predicting and explaining many of the electric characteristics of the action potential, the HH model, nevertheless cannot accommodate the various non-electrical physical manifestations (mechanical, thermal and optical changes) that accompany action potential propagation, and for which there is ample experimental evidence. As such, the electrical conception of neuronal excitability appears to be incomplete and alternatives, aiming to improve, extend or even replace it, have been sought for. Commonly misunderstood as to their basic premises and the physical principles they are built on, and mistakenly perceived as a threat to the generally acknowledged explanatory power of the "classical" HH framework, these attempts to present a more complete picture of neuronal physiology, have met with fierce opposition from mainstream neuroscience and, as a consequence, currently remain underdeveloped and insufficiently tested. Here we present our perspective that this may be an unfortunate state of affairs as these different biophysics-informed approaches to incorporate also non-electrical signs of the action potential into the modeling and explanation of the nerve signal, in our view, are well suited to foster a new, more complete and better integrated understanding of the (multi)physical nature of neuronal excitability and signal transport and, hence, of neuronal function. In doing so, we will emphasize attempts to derive the different physical manifestations of the action potential from one common, macroscopic thermodynamics-based, framework treating the multiphysics of the nerve signal as the inevitable result of the collective material, i.e., physico-chemical, properties of the lipid bilayer neuronal membrane (in particular, the axolemma) and/or the so-called ectoplasm or membrane skeleton consisting of cytoskeletal protein polymers, in particular, actin fibrils. Potential consequences for our view of action potential physiology and role in neuronal function are identified and discussed.

Consciousness and inward electromagnetic field interactions

Electromagnetic field (EMF) theories of mind/brain integration have been proposed to explain brain function for over seventy years. Interest in this theory continues to this day because it explains mind-brain integration and it offers a simple solution to the “binding problem” of our unified conscious experience. Thus, it addresses at least in part the “hard problem” of consciousness. EMFs are easily measured and many corelates have been noted for field activity; associated with loss and recovery of consciousness, sensory perceptions, and behavior. Unfortunately, the theory was challenged early on by experiments that were thought to have ruled out a role of EMFs in brain activity, and the field of neuroscience has since marginalized EMF theories. Here I explain why early evidence against EMFs contributing to consciousness was misinterpreted and offer an alternative view to help direct future research.