Technological interventions in improving the functionality of proteins during processing of meat analogs

Techno-functionality of pea protein isolate: Influence of ultrasound and high-pressure homogenization modification methods

Pea protein isolate (PPI) was modified using high-pressure homogenization (HPH) at three pressure levels (60, 80, and 100 MPa) for three cycles and ultrasound (US) at three power levels (100, 200, and 300 W) for 10 min. Results showed that both techniques significantly increased solubility, oil holding capacity, emulsifying activity and foam capacity. Ultimately, a homogenization pressure of 100 MPa (HPH 100) and an ultrasound power of 300 W (US 300) were identified as the optimal treatments. HPH and US treatments led to a significant reduction in particle size and an increase in the surface charge of the samples. FTIR spectroscopy revealed changes in hydrogen bonding and the secondary structure of PPI after HPH and US treatment. Also, SEM imaging showed that the spherical shape of PPI transformed into heterogeneous sheet structures. Additionally, the comparison of HPH and US techniques revealed that the HPH resulted in a greater reduction in size and a greater increase in solubility and FC compared to the US. On the other hand, the US technique showed greater EAI and thermal stability. Therefore, both HPH and US are effective in altering the PPI structure to enhance its functional properties.

Application of functional ingredients in meat products for appetite regulation: A promising strategy to address overconsumption

Functional meat products to reduce appetite is a feasible approach to decreasing meat consumption, especially in the current global pandemic of overweight and sustainability issues in meat production. The meat itself is highly satiating because of its high protein content. Dietary fibre and plant protein, both naturally occurring macromolecular compounds with appetite-suppressant properties, work synergistically with the meat itself to create a feeling of fullness. Dietary fibre consumption induces satiety by improving structural complexity and chewing time. Increasing protein content improves the volume and texture of the product. The overall effect on appetite varies widely with ingredient and meat product types. By-products, mycoproteins, and insects have the potential to generate functional and sustainable meat products. The incorporation of functional ingredients improves the yield and textural complexity of meat products, albeit at the expense of sensory properties. The complex interactions among food structure, texture, oral processing, and satiety/palatability warrant additional study to inform the design of meat products that maximise the contribution to appetite control. This review aims to provide an overview of the types of ingredients used in the preparation of functional meat products and their effect on controlling appetite.

Nutritional Quality, Safety and Environmental Benefits of Alternative Protein Sources-An Overview

Protein is a fundamental macronutrient in the human diet. It supplies our organisms with essential amino acids, which are needed for the growth and maintenance of cells and tissues. Conventional protein sources, despite their complete amino acid profiles and excellent digestibility, have a proven negative impact on the environment. Furthermore, their production poses many ethical challenges. This review aims to present nutritional, more ethical, and environmentally friendly alternatives that could serve as potential protein sources for the population. The available literature on alternative protein sources has been analyzed. Based on the research conducted, various products have been identified and described, including plant-based protein sources such as soybeans, peas, faba beans, lupins, and hemp seeds; aquatic sources such as algae, microalgae, and water lentils; as well as insect-based and microbial protein sources, and cell-cultured meat. Despite numerous advantages, such as a lower environmental impact, higher ethical standards of production, and beneficial nutritional profiles, alternative protein sources are not without limitations. These include lower bioavailability of certain amino acids, the presence of antinutritional compounds, technological challenges, and issues related to consumer acceptance. Nevertheless, with proper dietary composition, optimization of production processes, and further technological advancements, presented alternatives can constitute valuable and sustainable protein sources for the growing global population.

Umami and saltiness enhancements of textured pea proteins by combining protease- and glutaminase-catalyzed reactions

Plant-based meat analogs (PBMAs) have attracted attention owing to their various advantages, however, their taste limits their application, requiring improvement of the umami and saltiness levels while meeting clean-label requirements. Enzymatic treatments for food processing are effective strategies for developing clean-label food products because enzymes are not considered food additives. In this study, we aimed to enhance the umami and saltiness intensity of PBMA patties by combining protease- and glutaminase-catalyzed reactions. For the production of extrudates to construct PBMA patties, enzymatically hydrolyzed pea proteins (eHPP) were produced via enzyme catalysis combinations, followed by the preparation of eHPP-mixed textured pea protein (eTPP) from eHPP and starch. Sensory evaluation revealed that the umami, kokumi, and saltiness levels of the eTPP-based patties containing 0.5% NaCl were significantly higher than those of the control patties containing 0.5% NaCl. Notably, the eTPP-based patties exhibited a 20% salt reduction. By screening for saltiness-enhancing amino acids and peptides released from eTPP-based patties in artificial saliva, the combination of Glu, Arg, Lys, and the separated peptide 3 was determined important in enhancing the saltiness intensity of NaCl. Moreover, it was revealed that the saltiness-enhancing peptide 3 may be a Maillard-induced peptide, based on the Lys residues in Glu-Gly-Lys-Gly and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural condensed from Glucose in starch during the extrusion process. Our findings suggest that the combination of proteases and glutaminases could be an attractive approach to enhance the umami and saltiness levels of PBMA products while meeting clean-label requirements.

Exploring Sustainable Future Protein Sources

With the exponential growth of the world population and the decline in agricultural production due to global warming, it is predicted that there will be an inevitable shortage of food and meat resources in the future. The global meat consumption, which reached 328 million tons in 2021, is expected to increase by about 70% by 2050, and the existing livestock industry, which utilizes limited resources, is having difficulty meeting the demand. Accordingly, cultured meat produced by culturing cells in the laboratory, edible insects consumed after cooking or processing, and plant-based meat processed by extracting proteins from plants have been proposed as sustainable food alternatives. These future protein sources are gaining popularity among consumers who prefer a healthy diet due to their nutritional benefits, and they are receiving attention for their potential to reduce environmental impact. This review describes the types and characteristics of protein sources such as cultured meat, antiserum media, edible insects, soy protein, wheat protein, and other mushroom mycelia, processing processes and technologies, market status, institutional challenges and prospects, and mushroom cultured meat.

Development of Plant-Based Burgers with Partial Replacement of Texturized Soy Protein by Agaricus bisporus: Effects on Physicochemical and Sensory Properties

This study aims to develop plant-based burgers with partial replacement of texturized soy protein (TSP) by Agaricus bisporus mushrooms at proportions of 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20%. The substitution was evaluated regarding its impact on the burgers' chemical composition, texture, color, cooking performance, and sensory properties. Chemical analyses showed a significant increase in moisture content starting from the 10% substitution level, contributing to improved juiciness. Protein content remained similar to the control until the 15% substitution level, while the fat content showed no significant variation among treatments. The texture profile indicated reduced hardness in burgers with mushroom enrichment, particularly at 5% and 10%, leading to a more tender product. Color analysis revealed a reduction in lightness (L*) and red intensity (a*) with increased mushroom levels. Sensory analysis showed that burgers with up to a 15% substitution level maintained consumer acceptance comparable to the control, with attributes such as "softness", "pleasant color", and "good appearance" positively correlated with consumer acceptance. The findings indicate that Agaricus bisporus mushrooms can be effectively used as a partial substitute for TSP in plant-based burgers, enhancing sensory properties without compromising quality. This substitution offers a promising approach to diversifying ingredients in plant-based products while maintaining desirable characteristics for consumers.

Current challenges of alternative proteins as future foods

Global demand for food is expected to nearly double by 2050. Alternative proteins (AP) have been proposed as a sustainable solution to provide food security as natural resources become more depleted. However, the growth and consumer intake of AP remains limited. This review aims to better understand the challenges and environmental impacts of four main AP categories: plant-based, insect-based, microbe-derived, and cultured meat and seafood. The environmental benefits of plant-based and insect-based proteins have been documented but the impacts of microbe-derived proteins and cultured meat have not been fully assessed. The development of alternative products with nutritional and sensory profiles similar to their conventional counterparts remains highly challenging. Furthermore, incomplete safety assessments and a lack of clear regulatory guidelines confuse the food industry and hamper progress. Much still needs to be done to fully support AP utilization within the context of supporting the drive to make the global food system sustainable.

Smart proteins as a new paradigm for meeting dietary protein sufficiency of India: a critical review on the safety and sustainability of different protein sources

India, a global leader in agriculture, faces sustainability challenges in feeding its population. Although primarily a vegetarian population, the consumption of animal derived proteins has tremendously increased in recent years. Excessive dependency on animal proteins is not environmentally sustainable, necessitating the identification of alternative smart proteins. Smart proteins are environmentally benign and mimic the properties of animal proteins (dairy, egg and meat) and are derived from plant proteins, microbial fermentation, insects and cell culture meat (CCM) processes. This review critically evaluates the technological, safety, and sustainability challenges involved in production of smart proteins and their consumer acceptance from Indian context. Under current circumstances, plant-based proteins are most favorable; however, limited land availability and impending climate change makes them unsustainable in the long run. CCM is unaffordable with high input costs limiting its commercialization in near future. Microbial-derived proteins could be the most sustainable option for future owing to higher productivity and ability to grow on low-cost substrates. A circular economy approach integrating agri-horti waste valorization and C1 substrate synthesis with microbial biomass production offer economic viability. Considering the use of novel additives and processing techniques, evaluation of safety, allergenicity, and bioavailability of smart protein products is necessary before large-scale adoption.

Effects of extrusion conditions on the morphological, functional, and sensory properties of soy press cake extrudates

We developed and applied 4 extrusion regimens (moisture content between 30 % and 60 % and temperature from 110 °C to 120 °C) with twin-screw extruder for valorising soy press cakes, byproduct of soy drink (Soyd) and tofu (Soyt) manufacturing processes, by varying physical conditions of extrusion for improving their morphological, functional, and sensory parameters. The valorised soy press cakes were compared to their respective control samples (Soyd or Soyt) both before and after extrusion. Two quantities (3%-6%) of untreated and extruded soy press cakes were utilised to develop meat analogues. Extrusion introduced striations and reduced flakiness on the surface of extruded press cake samples. Press cakes extruded at higher moisture indicated improved water holding and oil holding capacity. Interestingly, the same press cake samples also scored higher for positive indicators (e.g., juiciness) during sensory assessment. Compared with meat analogue control matrix, all meat analogue samples containing varying amounts of extruded press cake exhibited reduced chewiness, with other parameters relatively unchanged. Our results indicate that extrusion of soy press cakes of both Soyd and Soyt origin at 120 °C with 60 % moisture results in improving the morphological, functional, and sensory properties of press cakes, making them suitable for development of meat analogues.

Extraction, Modification, Biofunctionality, and Food Applications of Chickpea (Cicer arietinum) Protein: An Up-to-Date Review

Plant-based proteins have gained popularity in the food industry as a good protein source. Among these, chickpea protein has gained significant attention in recent times due to its high yields, high nutritional content, and health benefits. With an abundance of essential amino acids, particularly lysine, and a highly digestible indispensable amino acid score of 76 (DIAAS), chickpea protein is considered a substitute for animal proteins. However, the application of chickpea protein in food products is limited due to its poor functional properties, such as solubility, water-holding capacity, and emulsifying and gelling properties. To overcome these limitations, various modification methods, including physical, biological, chemical, and a combination of these, have been applied to enhance the functional properties of chickpea protein and expand its applications in healthy food products. Therefore, this review aims to comprehensively examine recent advances in Cicer arietinum (chickpea) protein extraction techniques, characterizing its properties, exploring post-modification strategies, and assessing its diverse applications in the food industry. Moreover, we reviewed the nutritional benefits and sustainability implications, along with addressing regulatory considerations. This review intends to provide insights into maximizing the potential of Cicer arietinum protein in diverse applications while ensuring sustainability and compliance with regulations.

Electrochemical immunosensor for point-of-care detection of soybean Gly m TI allergen in foods

Soybean is a legume with high technological functionality, commonly used by the food industry as an ingredient in different products. However, soybean is an allergenic food whose undeclared presence in processed foods may represent a public health risk. In this work, it was developed an efficient electrochemical immunosensor, targeting the soybean trypsin inhibitor (Gly m TI) allergen using commercial anti-Gly m TI IgG, aiming at detecting/quantifying minute amounts of soybean in different food formulations. For this purpose, model mixtures of different foods (sausages, cooked-hams, biscuits) were prepared to contain known amounts of soybean protein isolate (100,000-0.1 mg kg-1) and submitted to specific thermal treatments (autoclaving, oven-cooking, baking). The electrochemical immunosensor allowed quantifying down to 0.1 mg kg-1 of soybean in the three food matrices, raw and processed (0.0012 mg of Gly m TI/kg of matrix). Accordingly, the immunosensor is suitable for detecting traces of soybean in raw, processed, and complex foods, thus protecting 99 % of soybean-allergic patients.

An Overview of Ingredients Used for Plant-Based Meat Analogue Production and Their Influence on Structural and Textural Properties of the Final Product

Plant-based meat analogues are food products made from vegetarian or vegan ingredients that are intended to mimic taste, texture and appearance of meat. They are becoming increasingly popular as people look for more sustainable and healthy protein sources. Furthermore, plant-based foods are marketed as foods with a low carbon footprint and represent a contribution of the consumers and the food industry to a cleaner and a climate-change-free Earth. Production processes of plant-based meat analogues often include technologies such as 3D printing, extrusion or shear cell where the ingredients have to be carefully picked because of their influence on structural and textural properties of the final product, and, in consequence, consumer perception and acceptance of the plant-based product. This review paper gives an extensive overview of meat analogue components, which affect the texture and the structure of the final product, discusses the complex interaction of those ingredients and reflects on numerous studies that have been performed in that area, but also emphasizes the need for future research and optimization of the mixture used in plant-based meat analogue production, as well as for optimization of the production process.

Evaluating the potential of millets as blend components with soy protein isolate in a high moisture extrusion system for improved texture, structure, and colour properties of meat analogues

This study explored the use of millets flours as a secondary ingredient with soy protein isolate (SPI) to develop fibrous high moisture meat analogue (HMMA). Three millets (sorghum, pearl millet, and finger millet) with three incorporation levels (10%, 20%, and 30%) were extruded at 60%, 65%, and 70% moisture content. The results showed that millet type, incorporation level, and moisture content significantly influenced the system parameters and textural properties. Good visual texturization was achieved at addition of pearl millet up to 30% incorporation level and sorghum and finger millet up to 20% incorporation level. Furthermore, the textural properties of HMMA made from SPI-millet blends were compared against HMMA made from SPI-gluten blend and real chicken. The HMMA made from SPI-millet flour had lower hardness, chewiness, resilience, springiness, tensile strength, cutting strength than that for SPI and SPI-wheat gluten blend and were much closer to corresponding values for real chicken. The results also showed that each of the three millet types generated distinctly different fibre patterns (thick to thin fibres) and colour (whiter to darker) of HMMA. Thus, HMMA produced from SPI-millet flour blends can offer a wide textural, fibre pattern and colour space for different plant-based meat applications. Since millets do not have gluten, they also offer an opportunity to make gluten-free HMMA's.

Preparation of Whole-Cut Plant-Based Pork Meat and Its Quality Evaluation with Animal Meat

Low-moisture (20~40%) and high-moisture (40~80%) textured vegetable proteins (TVPs) can be used as important components of plant-based lean meat, while plant-based fat can be characterized by the formation of gels from polysaccharides, proteins, etc. In this study, three kinds of whole-cut plant-based pork (PBP) were prepared based on the mixed gel system, which were from low-moisture TVP, high-moisture TVP, and their mixtures. The comparisons of these products with commercially available plant-based pork (C-PBP1 and C-PBP2) and animal pork meat (APM) were studied in terms of appearance, taste, and nutritional qualities. Results showed the color changes of PBPs after frying were similar to that of APM. The addition of high-moisture TVP would significantly improve hardness (3751.96~7297.21 g), springiness (0.84~0.89%), and chewiness (3162.44~6466.94 g) while also reducing the viscosity (3.89~10.56 g) of products. It was found that the use of high-moisture TVP led to a significant increase in water-holding capacity (WHC) from 150.25% to 161.01% compared with low-moisture TVP; however, oil-holding capacity (OHC) was reduced from 166.34% to 164.79%. Moreover, essential amino acids (EAAs), the essential amino acids index (EAAI), and biological value (BV) were significantly increased from 272.68 mg/g, 105.52, and 103.32 to 362.65 mg/g, 141.34, and 142.36, respectively, though in vitro protein digestibility (IVPD) reduced from 51.67% to 43.68% due to the high-moisture TVP. Thus, the high-moisture TVP could help to improve the appearance, textural properties, WHC, and nutritional qualities of PBPs compared to animal meat, which was also better than low-moisture TVP. These findings should be useful for the application of TVP and gels in plant-based pork products to improve the taste and nutritional qualities.

Developments in Plant Proteins Production for Meat and Fish Analogues

In recent years, there have been significant developments in plant proteins production for meat and fish analogues. Some of the key developments include the use of new plant protein sources such as soy, legumes, grains, potatoes, and seaweed, as well as insect proteins, leaf proteins, mushrooms, and microbial proteins. Furthermore, to improve the technological and functional properties of plant proteins, they can be subjected to traditional and unconventional treatments such as chemical (glycosylation, deamidation, phosphorylation, and acylation), physical (pulsed electric fields, ultrasound, high hydrostatic pressure, dynamic high-pressure treatment, and cold plasma), and biological (fermentation and enzymatic modification). To obtain the high quality and the desired texture of the food product, other ingredients besides proteins, such as water, fat, flavors, binders, dyes, vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants, also have to be used. The final product can be significantly influenced by the matrix composition, variety of ingredients, and water content, with the type of ingredients playing a role in either enhancing or constraining the desired texture of the food. There are several types of technologies used for meat and fish analogues production, including extrusion, shear cell technology, spinning, 3D printing, and others. Overall, the technologies used for meat and fish analogues production are constantly evolving as new innovations are developed and existing methods are improved. These developments have led to the creation of plant-based products that have a similar texture, taste, and nutritional profile to meat and fish, making them more appealing to consumers seeking alternatives to animal-based products.