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Yim J, Hope C, Huelse JM, Graham DK. Prospects of current AXL-targeting therapies in early phase cancer trials. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2025:1-33. [PMID: 40413629 DOI: 10.1080/13543784.2025.2511178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2025] [Revised: 04/22/2025] [Accepted: 05/19/2025] [Indexed: 05/27/2025]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION AXL, a member of the TAM (TYRO3, AXL, and MERTK) family of receptor tyrosine kinases, controls pro-tumorigenic signaling cascades and cancer-immunological functions, and promotes drug resistance. Due to AXL's multifaceted role and therapeutic activity in preclinical studies, a variety of AXL inhibitors are being developed and tested in clinical trials for cancer treatment. Some clinical studies are showing promising results for AXL inhibitors as monotherapy and in combination with standard of care therapeutics. Currently, no selective AXL-targeting therapy has reached FDA-approval, but several compounds have entered phase II and III studies. AREA COVERED We elaborate on the role of AXL in cancer progression and suppressing anti-cancer immunity at both the molecular level and immune cell interaction level. Additionally, we review pre-clinical and clinical data of AXL-targeting agents. EXPERT OPINION Preclinical and several early clinical trials demonstrated the safety of AXL-targeting monotherapies with some evidence of efficacy. Additionally, multiple novel combination regimens including AXL-targeting agents to overcome resistance mechanisms are being actively examined with some promising results. However, patient selection and companion biomarkers may be critical for the success of AXL-targeting therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juhye Yim
- Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta and Department of Pediatrics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Chloe Hope
- Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta and Department of Pediatrics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Justus M Huelse
- Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta and Department of Pediatrics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Douglas K Graham
- Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta and Department of Pediatrics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
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2
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Yang J, Chen G, Wang R, Song C, Yi H. Navigating TAM receptor dynamics in tumour immunotherapy. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2025; 74:146. [PMID: 40088262 PMCID: PMC11910493 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-024-03879-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2024] [Accepted: 11/02/2024] [Indexed: 03/17/2025]
Abstract
The TAM receptor family is getting more and more attention in the field of tumour immunity. Activation of TAM receptors not only aids in the survival and multiplication of tumour cells but also increases their likelihood of invading other cells and spreading. In addition, activation of TAM receptors helps to inhibit the anti-tumour immune response, allowing tumour cells to evade immune surveillance. In terms of therapeutic strategies, a number of inhibitors targeting TAM receptors are in preclinical and clinical development. Despite significant progress in clinical trials in recent years, challenges remain. This review delves into the kinetic characteristics of the TAM receptor family, their dual role in tumour immunity, and the transmission process of downstream signalling pathways. Based on this, we analysed and summarised the unique strategies and combination therapies for regulating tumour immunity using TAM receptor inhibitors. It not only helps to elucidate the key role of TAM receptors in tumour immunity but also provides new perspectives and strategies for future tumour therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jihao Yang
- School of Acupuncture and Tuina, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese, Medicine, Jinan, 250013, People's Republic of China
| | - Guanmin Chen
- School of Acupuncture and Tuina, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese, Medicine, Jinan, 250013, People's Republic of China
| | - Rui Wang
- School of Acupuncture and Tuina, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese, Medicine, Jinan, 250013, People's Republic of China
| | - Chengcheng Song
- School of Acupuncture and Tuina, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese, Medicine, Jinan, 250013, People's Republic of China
| | - Huaqiang Yi
- School of Acupuncture and Tuina, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese, Medicine, Jinan, 250013, People's Republic of China.
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3
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Kalfakakou D, Cameron DC, Kawaler EA, Tsuda M, Wang L, Jing X, Hajdu C, Tamayo DL, Shim Y, Ackermann A, Weissinger D, Zimny H, Hernandez R, Beier M, Dimartino D, Meyn P, Rice K, Selvaraj S, Loomis C, Heguy A, Lund AW, Sears RC, Welling TH, Dolgalev I, Tsirigos A, Simeone DM. Clonal Heterogeneity in Human Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma and Its Impact on Tumor Progression. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2025:2025.02.11.637729. [PMID: 39990481 PMCID: PMC11844494 DOI: 10.1101/2025.02.11.637729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/25/2025]
Abstract
Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is an aggressive cancer characterized by profound desmoplasia and cellular heterogeneity, which cannot be fully resolved using traditional bulk sequencing approaches. To understand the contribution of this heterogeneity to PDAC biology, we analyzed a large cohort of primary human PDAC samples (n = 62), profiling 443,451 single cells and 53,236 spatial transcriptomic spots using a combined single-cell RNA sequencing and spatial transcriptomics approach. Our analysis revealed significant intratumoral heterogeneity, with multiple genetically distinct neoplastic clones co-existing within individual tumors. These clones exhibited diverse transcriptional states and subtype profiles, challenging the traditional binary classification of PDAC into basal and classical subtypes; instead, our findings support a transcriptional continuum influenced by clonal evolution and spatial organization. Additionally, these clones each interacted uniquely with surrounding cell types in the tumor microenvironment. Phylogenetic analysis uncovered a rare but consistent classical-to-basal clonal transition associated with MYC amplification and immune response depletion, which were validated experimentally, suggesting a mechanism driving the emergence of a more aggressive basal clonal phenotype. Spatial analyses further revealed dispersed clones enriched for epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) activity and immune suppression, correlating with metastatic potential and colonization of lymph node niches. These dispersed clones tended to transition toward a basal phenotype, contributing to disease progression. Our findings highlight the critical role of clonal diversity, transcriptional plasticity, and TME interactions in shaping human PDAC biology. This work provides new insights into the molecular and spatial heterogeneity of PDAC and offers potential avenues for therapeutic intervention targeting clonal evolution and the mechanisms driving metastasis.
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Jackson M, Gibson TM, Frank E, Hill G, Davidson B, Reynolds PR, Bikman BT, Pickett BE, Arroyo JA. Transcriptomic Insights into Gas6-Induced Placental Dysfunction: Gene Targets for Preeclampsia Therapy. Cells 2025; 14:278. [PMID: 39996749 PMCID: PMC11853264 DOI: 10.3390/cells14040278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2025] [Revised: 02/11/2025] [Accepted: 02/12/2025] [Indexed: 02/26/2025] Open
Abstract
Preeclampsia (PE) is a complex pregnancy-specific disorder characterized by hypertension, proteinuria, and systemic inflammation, posing significant risks to maternal and fetal health. This study investigates the role of growth arrest-specific protein 6 (Gas6) in PE pathogenesis using a rat model. Gas6 administration induces hallmark PE features, including hypertension, proteinuria, and significant alterations in placental gene expression. Transcriptomic analysis revealed changes in pathways related to extracellular matrix remodeling, interleukin signaling, and oxidative stress, highlighting their contribution to PE pathology. Key findings include the upregulation of Fam111a, linked to oxidative stress and DNA replication, and the downregulation of Clca4, associated with ion transport and cellular homeostasis. Protein-level validation through immunofluorescence confirmed these alterations, reinforcing their mechanistic roles in placental dysfunction. Enrichment analysis further identified significant disruptions in extracellular matrix organization and intercellular signaling. These results underscore the pivotal role of Gas6 in exacerbating placental oxidative stress and systemic inflammation. Importantly, therapeutic inhibition of the Gas6/AXL axis using small-molecule inhibitors mitigated PE-like symptoms, highlighting its potential as a therapeutic target. This study provides novel insights into the molecular underpinnings of Gas6-mediated placental dysfunction and supports the development of targeted therapies to improve PE outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Jackson
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA
| | - Trenton M. Gibson
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA
| | - Ethan Frank
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA
| | - Garrett Hill
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA
| | - Benjamin Davidson
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA
| | - Paul R. Reynolds
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA
| | - Benjamin T. Bikman
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA
| | - Brett E. Pickett
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA
| | - Juan A. Arroyo
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA
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5
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Purohit S, Mandal G, Biswas S, Dalui S, Gupta A, Chowdhury SR, Bhattacharyya A. AXL/GAS6 signaling governs differentiation of tumor-associated macrophages in breast cancer. Exp Cell Res 2025; 444:114324. [PMID: 39510154 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2024.114324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2024] [Revised: 10/09/2024] [Accepted: 11/04/2024] [Indexed: 11/15/2024]
Abstract
Most epithelial cancers are infiltrated by prognostically relevant myelomonocytic cells. Immunosuppressive tumor associated macrophages (TAMs) and their precursor monocytic myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) have previously been associated with worse outcomes in human breast cancer (BCa), yet the mechanism of immunosuppressive TAMs-polarization from myelomonocytic precursors is not completely understood. In this study, we show that persuaded AXL/GAS6 pathway alters macrophage phenotype from HLA-DRhighCD206lowCD163low classical phagocytic into HLA-DRlowCD206highCD163high immunosuppressive ones with accelerated BCa progression, and increased angiogenesis signature and invasion ability of cancer cells at tumor beds. Notably, both AXL and GAS6 expressions are upregulated in human invasive breast carcinoma, with maximum expression in triple negative histology type. Mechanistically, we demonstrate that AXL/GAS6 signaling drives immunosuppression by governing increased immunosuppressive IL10 production while dampening IL-1β expression within the tumor microenvironment (TME) of BCa. Further, AXL/GAS6 signaling promotes angiogenesis through the activation of PI3K/AKT and NF-κB signaling pathways. Our results unveil role of AXL/GAS6 axis in the differentiation of TAMs, which governs malignant growth, and suggest that therapies that uncouple AXL/GAS6 axis may exhibit therapeutic opportunity for otherwise undruggable Triple Negative Breast Cancer (TNBC) patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suman Purohit
- Immunology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta, 35, Ballygunge Circular Road, Kolkata, 700019, West Bengal, India; Department of Zoology, Gurudas College, 1/1, Suren Sarkar Road, Phool Bagan, Kolkata, 700054, West Bengal, India
| | - Gunjan Mandal
- Immunology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta, 35, Ballygunge Circular Road, Kolkata, 700019, West Bengal, India; Division of Cancer Biology, DBT-Institute of Life Sciences, Bhubaneswar, 751023, India
| | - Subir Biswas
- Immunology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta, 35, Ballygunge Circular Road, Kolkata, 700019, West Bengal, India; Tumor Immunology and Immunotherapy, Advanced Centre for Treatment, Research and Education in Cancer (ACTREC), Tata Memorial Centre, Kharghar, Navi Mumbai, 410210, India; Homi Bhabha National Institute, Anushaktinagar, Mumbai, 400 094, Maharashtra, India
| | - Shauryabrota Dalui
- Immunology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta, 35, Ballygunge Circular Road, Kolkata, 700019, West Bengal, India
| | - Arnab Gupta
- Department of Surgical Oncology, Saroj Gupta Cancer Centre and Research Institute, Mahatma Gandhi Road, Kolkata, 700063, West Bengal, India
| | - Sougata Roy Chowdhury
- Immunology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta, 35, Ballygunge Circular Road, Kolkata, 700019, West Bengal, India; Translational Immunology Laboratory, Department of Life Science and Biotechnology, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, 700032, West Bengal, India
| | - Arindam Bhattacharyya
- Immunology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta, 35, Ballygunge Circular Road, Kolkata, 700019, West Bengal, India.
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Prouse T, Majumder S, Majumder R. Functions of TAM Receptors and Ligands Protein S and Gas6 in Atherosclerosis and Cardiovascular Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:12736. [PMID: 39684449 DOI: 10.3390/ijms252312736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2024] [Revised: 11/20/2024] [Accepted: 11/26/2024] [Indexed: 12/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease are associated with high morbidity and mortality in industrialized nations. The Tyro3, Axl, and Mer (TAM) family of receptor tyrosine kinases is involved in the amplification or resolution of atherosclerosis pathology and other cardiovascular pathology. The ligands of these receptors, Protein S (PS) and growth arrest specific protein 6 (Gas6), are essential for TAM receptor functions in the amplification and resolution of atherosclerosis. The Axl-Gas6 interaction has various effects on cardiovascular disease. Mer and PS dampen inflammation, thereby protecting against atherosclerosis progression. Tyro3, the least studied TAM receptor in cardiovascular disease, appears to protect against fibrosis in post-myocardial infarction injury. Ultimately, PS, Gas6, and TAM receptors present an exciting avenue of potential therapeutic targets against inflammation associated with atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teagan Prouse
- Department of Interdisciplinary Oncology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA
| | - Samarpan Majumder
- Department of Genetics, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA
| | - Rinku Majumder
- Department of Interdisciplinary Oncology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA
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Li W, Huang Y, Liu J, Zhou Y, Sun H, Fan Y, Liu F. Defective macrophage efferocytosis in advanced atherosclerotic plaque and mitochondrial therapy. Life Sci 2024; 359:123204. [PMID: 39491771 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2024.123204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2024] [Revised: 10/02/2024] [Accepted: 10/30/2024] [Indexed: 11/05/2024]
Abstract
Atherosclerosis (AS) is a chronic inflammatory disease primarily affecting large and medium-sized arterial vessels, characterized by lipoprotein disorders, intimal thickening, smooth muscle cell proliferation, and the formation of vulnerable plaques. Macrophages (MΦs) play a vital role in the inflammatory response throughout all stages of atherosclerotic development and are considered significant therapeutic targets. In early lesions, macrophage efferocytosis rapidly eliminates harmful cells. However, impaired efferocytosis in advanced plaques perpetuates the inflammatory microenvironment of AS. Defective efferocytosis has emerged as a key factor in atherosclerotic pathogenesis and the progression to severe cardiovascular disease. Herein, this review probes into investigate the potential mechanisms at the cellular, molecular, and organelle levels underlying defective macrophage efferocytosis in advanced lesion plaques. In the inflammatory microenvironments of AS with interactions among diverse inflammatory immune cells, impaired macrophage efferocytosis is strongly linked to multiple factors, such as a lower absolute number of phagocytes, the aberrant expression of crucial molecules, and impaired mitochondrial energy provision in phagocytes. Thus, focusing on molecular targets to enhance macrophage efferocytosis or targeting mitochondrial therapy to restore macrophage metabolism homeostasis has emerged as a potential strategy to mitigate the progression of advanced atherosclerotic plaque, providing various treatment options.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wanling Li
- School of Pharmacy and Bioengineering, Chongqing University of Technology, Chongqing 400054, China; The General Hospital of Western Theater Command, Chengdu 610083, China
| | - Yaqing Huang
- School of Pharmacy and Bioengineering, Chongqing University of Technology, Chongqing 400054, China; The General Hospital of Western Theater Command, Chengdu 610083, China
| | - Jun Liu
- School of Pharmacy and Bioengineering, Chongqing University of Technology, Chongqing 400054, China
| | - Yue Zhou
- School of Pharmacy and Bioengineering, Chongqing University of Technology, Chongqing 400054, China
| | - Hongyu Sun
- The General Hospital of Western Theater Command, Chengdu 610083, China
| | - Yonghong Fan
- The General Hospital of Western Theater Command, Chengdu 610083, China.
| | - Feila Liu
- School of Pharmacy and Bioengineering, Chongqing University of Technology, Chongqing 400054, China.
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Henlon Y, Panir K, McIntyre I, Hogg C, Dhami P, Cuff AO, Senior A, Moolchandani-Adwani N, Courtois ET, Horne AW, Rosser M, Ott S, Greaves E. Single-cell analysis identifies distinct macrophage phenotypes associated with prodisease and proresolving functions in the endometriotic niche. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2024; 121:e2405474121. [PMID: 39255000 PMCID: PMC11420174 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2405474121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2024] [Accepted: 07/24/2024] [Indexed: 09/11/2024] Open
Abstract
Endometriosis negatively impacts the health-related quality of life of 190 million women worldwide. Novel advances in nonhormonal treatments for this debilitating condition are desperately needed. Macrophages play a vital role in the pathophysiology of endometriosis and represent a promising therapeutic target. In the current study, we revealed the full transcriptomic complexity of endometriosis-associated macrophage subpopulations using single-cell analyses in a preclinical mouse model of experimental endometriosis. We have identified two key lesion-resident populations that resemble i) tumor-associated macrophages (characterized by expression of Folr2, Mrc1, Gas6, and Ccl8+) that promoted expression of Col1a1 and Tgfb1 in human endometrial stromal cells and increased angiogenic meshes in human umbilical vein endothelial cells, and ii) scar-associated macrophages (Mmp12, Cd9, Spp1, Trem2+) that exhibited a phenotype associated with fibrosis and matrix remodeling. We also described a population of proresolving large peritoneal macrophages that align with a lipid-associated macrophage phenotype (Apoe, Saa3, Pid1) concomitant with altered lipid metabolism and cholesterol efflux. Gain of function experiments using an Apoe mimetic resulted in decreased lesion size and fibrosis, and modification of peritoneal macrophage populations in the preclinical model. Using cross-species analysis of mouse and human single-cell datasets, we determined the concordance of peritoneal and lesion-resident macrophage subpopulations, identifying key similarities and differences in transcriptomic phenotypes. Ultimately, we envisage that these findings will inform the design and use of specific macrophage-targeted therapies and open broad avenues for the treatment of endometriosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasmin Henlon
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, Warwick Medical School, University of Warwick, CoventryCV4 7AL, United Kingdom
- Centre for Early Life, University of Warwick, CoventryCV4 7AL, United Kingdom
| | - Kavita Panir
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, Warwick Medical School, University of Warwick, CoventryCV4 7AL, United Kingdom
- Centre for Early Life, University of Warwick, CoventryCV4 7AL, United Kingdom
| | - Iona McIntyre
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, Warwick Medical School, University of Warwick, CoventryCV4 7AL, United Kingdom
- Centre for Early Life, University of Warwick, CoventryCV4 7AL, United Kingdom
| | - Chloe Hogg
- Centre for Reproductive Health, Institute of Regeneration and Repair, The University of Edinburgh, EdinburghEH16 4UU, United Kingdom
| | - Priya Dhami
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, Warwick Medical School, University of Warwick, CoventryCV4 7AL, United Kingdom
- Centre for Early Life, University of Warwick, CoventryCV4 7AL, United Kingdom
| | - Antonia O. Cuff
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, Warwick Medical School, University of Warwick, CoventryCV4 7AL, United Kingdom
- Centre for Early Life, University of Warwick, CoventryCV4 7AL, United Kingdom
| | - Anna Senior
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, Warwick Medical School, University of Warwick, CoventryCV4 7AL, United Kingdom
| | - Niky Moolchandani-Adwani
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, Warwick Medical School, University of Warwick, CoventryCV4 7AL, United Kingdom
- Centre for Early Life, University of Warwick, CoventryCV4 7AL, United Kingdom
| | - Elise T. Courtois
- Single Cell Biology Lab, The Jackson Laboratory for Genomic Medicine, Farmington, CT06032
| | - Andrew W. Horne
- Centre for Reproductive Health, Institute of Regeneration and Repair, The University of Edinburgh, EdinburghEH16 4UU, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew Rosser
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, Warwick Medical School, University of Warwick, CoventryCV4 7AL, United Kingdom
- Centre for Early Life, University of Warwick, CoventryCV4 7AL, United Kingdom
| | - Sascha Ott
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, Warwick Medical School, University of Warwick, CoventryCV4 7AL, United Kingdom
- Centre for Early Life, University of Warwick, CoventryCV4 7AL, United Kingdom
| | - Erin Greaves
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, Warwick Medical School, University of Warwick, CoventryCV4 7AL, United Kingdom
- Centre for Early Life, University of Warwick, CoventryCV4 7AL, United Kingdom
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Tomuleasa C, Tigu AB, Munteanu R, Moldovan CS, Kegyes D, Onaciu A, Gulei D, Ghiaur G, Einsele H, Croce CM. Therapeutic advances of targeting receptor tyrosine kinases in cancer. Signal Transduct Target Ther 2024; 9:201. [PMID: 39138146 PMCID: PMC11323831 DOI: 10.1038/s41392-024-01899-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2024] [Revised: 05/29/2024] [Accepted: 06/14/2024] [Indexed: 08/15/2024] Open
Abstract
Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs), a category of transmembrane receptors, have gained significant clinical attention in oncology due to their central role in cancer pathogenesis. Genetic alterations, including mutations, amplifications, and overexpression of certain RTKs, are critical in creating environments conducive to tumor development. Following their discovery, extensive research has revealed how RTK dysregulation contributes to oncogenesis, with many cancer subtypes showing dependency on aberrant RTK signaling for their proliferation, survival and progression. These findings paved the way for targeted therapies that aim to inhibit crucial biological pathways in cancer. As a result, RTKs have emerged as primary targets in anticancer therapeutic development. Over the past two decades, this has led to the synthesis and clinical validation of numerous small molecule tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs), now effectively utilized in treating various cancer types. In this manuscript we aim to provide a comprehensive understanding of the RTKs in the context of cancer. We explored the various alterations and overexpression of specific receptors across different malignancies, with special attention dedicated to the examination of current RTK inhibitors, highlighting their role as potential targeted therapies. By integrating the latest research findings and clinical evidence, we seek to elucidate the pivotal role of RTKs in cancer biology and the therapeutic efficacy of RTK inhibition with promising treatment outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ciprian Tomuleasa
- Medfuture Research Center for Advanced Medicine, Iuliu Hatieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj-Napoca, Romania.
- Department of Hematology, Iuliu Hatieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj Napoca, Romania.
- Department of Hematology, Ion Chiricuta Clinical Cancer Center, Cluj Napoca, Romania.
- Academy of Romanian Scientists, Ilfov 3, 050044, Bucharest, Romania.
| | - Adrian-Bogdan Tigu
- Medfuture Research Center for Advanced Medicine, Iuliu Hatieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
- Academy of Romanian Scientists, Ilfov 3, 050044, Bucharest, Romania
| | - Raluca Munteanu
- Medfuture Research Center for Advanced Medicine, Iuliu Hatieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
- Department of Hematology, Iuliu Hatieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj Napoca, Romania
- Academy of Romanian Scientists, Ilfov 3, 050044, Bucharest, Romania
| | - Cristian-Silviu Moldovan
- Medfuture Research Center for Advanced Medicine, Iuliu Hatieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - David Kegyes
- Medfuture Research Center for Advanced Medicine, Iuliu Hatieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
- Department of Hematology, Iuliu Hatieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj Napoca, Romania
- Academy of Romanian Scientists, Ilfov 3, 050044, Bucharest, Romania
| | - Anca Onaciu
- Medfuture Research Center for Advanced Medicine, Iuliu Hatieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Diana Gulei
- Medfuture Research Center for Advanced Medicine, Iuliu Hatieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Gabriel Ghiaur
- Medfuture Research Center for Advanced Medicine, Iuliu Hatieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
- Department of Hematology, Iuliu Hatieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj Napoca, Romania
- Department of Leukemia, Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center at Johns Hopkins, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Hermann Einsele
- Medfuture Research Center for Advanced Medicine, Iuliu Hatieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
- Department of Hematology, Iuliu Hatieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj Napoca, Romania
- Universitätsklinikum Würzburg, Medizinische Klinik II, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Carlo M Croce
- Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics and Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA.
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10
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Liu Z, Chen L, Zhang J, Yang J, Xiao X, Shan L, Mao W. Recent discovery and development of AXL inhibitors as antitumor agents. Eur J Med Chem 2024; 272:116475. [PMID: 38714043 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2024.116475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2024] [Revised: 04/30/2024] [Accepted: 05/01/2024] [Indexed: 05/09/2024]
Abstract
AXL, a receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK), plays a pivotal role in various cellular functions. It is primarily involved in processes such as epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in tumor cells, angiogenesis, apoptosis, immune regulation, and chemotherapy resistance mechanisms. Therefore, targeting AXL is a promising therapeutic approach for the treatment of cancer. AXL inhibitors that have entered clinical trials, such as BGB324(1), have shown promising efficacy in the treatment of melanoma and non-small cell lung cancer. Additionally, novel AXL-targeted drugs, such as AXL degraders, offer a potential solution to overcome the limitations of traditional small-molecule AXL inhibitors targeting single pathways. We provide an overview of the structure and biological functions of AXL, discusses its correlation with various cancers, and critically analyzes the structure-activity relationship of AXL small-molecule inhibitors in cellular contexts. Additionally, we summarize multiple research and development strategies, offering insights for the future development of innovative AXL inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zihang Liu
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Targeted Tracer Research and Development Laboratory, Institute of Respiratory Health, Frontiers Science Center for Disease-Related Molecular Network, Precision Medicine Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province & Precision Medicine Center, State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Health and Multimorbidity, Laboratory of Neuro-system and Multimorbidity, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, Sichuan, China; School of Life Science and Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, 610031, Sichuan, China
| | - Li Chen
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Targeted Tracer Research and Development Laboratory, Institute of Respiratory Health, Frontiers Science Center for Disease-Related Molecular Network, Precision Medicine Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province & Precision Medicine Center, State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Health and Multimorbidity, Laboratory of Neuro-system and Multimorbidity, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, Sichuan, China; Department of Pharmacy, Sichuan Academy of Medical Sciences & Sichuan Provincial People's Hospital, School of Medicine, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, 610072, Sichuan, China
| | - Jifa Zhang
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Targeted Tracer Research and Development Laboratory, Institute of Respiratory Health, Frontiers Science Center for Disease-Related Molecular Network, Precision Medicine Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province & Precision Medicine Center, State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Health and Multimorbidity, Laboratory of Neuro-system and Multimorbidity, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, Sichuan, China
| | - Jun Yang
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Targeted Tracer Research and Development Laboratory, Institute of Respiratory Health, Frontiers Science Center for Disease-Related Molecular Network, Precision Medicine Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province & Precision Medicine Center, State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Health and Multimorbidity, Laboratory of Neuro-system and Multimorbidity, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, Sichuan, China
| | - Xue Xiao
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children, Ministry of Education, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, Sichuan, China.
| | - Lianhai Shan
- School of Life Science and Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, 610031, Sichuan, China.
| | - Wuyu Mao
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Targeted Tracer Research and Development Laboratory, Institute of Respiratory Health, Frontiers Science Center for Disease-Related Molecular Network, Precision Medicine Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province & Precision Medicine Center, State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Health and Multimorbidity, Laboratory of Neuro-system and Multimorbidity, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, Sichuan, China.
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Mohammadzadeh P, Roueinfar M, Amberg GC. AXL receptor tyrosine kinase modulates gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor signaling. Cell Commun Signal 2023; 21:284. [PMID: 37828510 PMCID: PMC10568877 DOI: 10.1186/s12964-023-01313-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2023] [Accepted: 09/09/2023] [Indexed: 10/14/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) receptors are essential for reproduction and are expressed in numerous urogenital, reproductive, and non-reproductive cancers. In addition to canonical G protein-coupled receptor signaling, GnRH receptors functionally interact with several receptor tyrosine kinases. AXL is a receptor tyrosine kinase expressed in numerous tissues as well as multiple tumors. Here we tested the hypothesis that AXL, along with its endogenous ligand Gas6, impacts GnRH receptor signaling. METHODS We used clonal murine pituitary αT3-1 and LβT2 gonadotrope cell lines to examine the effect of AXL activation on GnRH receptor-dependent signaling outcomes. ELISA and immunofluorescence were used to observe AXL and GnRH receptor expression in αT3-1 and LβT2 cells, as well as in murine and human pituitary sections. We also used ELISA to measure changes in ERK phosphorylation, pro-MMP9 production, and release of LHβ. Digital droplet PCR was used to measure the abundance of Egr-1 transcripts. A transwell migration assay was used to measure αT3-1 and LβT2 migration responses to GnRH and AXL. RESULTS We observed AXL, along with the GnRH receptor, expression in αT3-1 and LβT2 gonadotrope cell lines, as well as in murine and human pituitary sections. Consistent with a potentiating role of AXL, Gas6 enhanced GnRH-dependent ERK phosphorylation in αT3-1 and LβT2 cells. Further, and consistent with enhanced post-transcriptional GnRH receptor responses, we found that Gas6 increased the abundance of Egr-1 transcripts. Suggesting functional significance, in LβT2 cells, Gas6/AXL signaling stimulated LHβ production and enhanced GnRH receptor-dependent generation of pro-MMP9 protein and promoted cell migration. CONCLUSIONS Altogether, these data describe a novel role for AXL as a modulator of GnRH receptor signaling. Video Abstract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pardis Mohammadzadeh
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, 1617 Campus Delivery, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, USA
| | - Mina Roueinfar
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, 1617 Campus Delivery, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, USA
| | - Gregory C Amberg
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, 1617 Campus Delivery, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, USA.
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