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Qin X, Hakenjos JM, MacKenzie KR, Barzi M, Chavan H, Nyshadham P, Wang J, Jung SY, Guner JZ, Chen S, Guo L, Krishnamurthy P, Bissig KD, Palmer S, Matzuk MM, Li F. Metabolism of a Selective Serotonin and Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitor Duloxetine in Liver Microsomes and Mice. Drug Metab Dispos 2022; 50:128-139. [PMID: 34785568 PMCID: PMC8969139 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.121.000633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2021] [Accepted: 10/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Duloxetine (DLX) is a dual serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor, widely used for the treatment of major depressive disorder. Although DLX has shown good efficacy and safety, serious adverse effects (e.g., liver injury) have been reported. The mechanisms associated with DLX-induced toxicity remain elusive. Drug metabolism plays critical roles in drug safety and efficacy. However, the metabolic profile of DLX in mice is not available, although mice serve as commonly used animal models for mechanistic studies of drug-induced adverse effects. Our study revealed 39 DLX metabolites in human/mouse liver microsomes and mice. Of note, 13 metabolites are novel, including five N-acetyl cysteine adducts and one reduced glutathione (GSH) adduct associated with DLX. Additionally, the species differences of certain metabolites were observed between human and mouse liver microsomes. CYP1A2 and CYP2D6 are primary enzymes responsible for the formation of DLX metabolites in liver microsomes, including DLX-GSH adducts. In summary, a total of 39 DLX metabolites were identified, and species differences were noticed in vitro. The roles of CYP450s in DLX metabolite formation were also verified using human recombinant cytochrome P450 (P450) enzymes and corresponding chemical inhibitors. Further studies are warranted to address the exact role of DLX metabolism in its adverse effects in vitro (e.g., human primary hepatocytes) and in vivo (e.g., Cyp1a2-null mice). SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: This current study systematically investigated Duloxetine (DLX) metabolism and bioactivation in liver microsomes and mice. This study provided a global view of DLX metabolism and bioactivation in liver microsomes and mice, which are very valuable to further elucidate the mechanistic study of DLX-related adverse effects and drug-drug interaction from metabolic aspects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuan Qin
- Center for Drug Discovery, Department of Pathology & Immunology (X.Q., J.M.H., K.R.M., P.N., J.Z.G., S.P., M.M.M., F.L.), NMR and Drug Metabolism Core, Advanced Technology Cores (K.R.M., F.L.), Department of Pharmacology & Chemical Biology (K.R.M., J.W., M.M.M., F.L.), and Department of Molecular & Cellular Biology (S.Y.J., K.-D.B., F.L.), Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas; Department of Pediatrics, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina (M.B., K.-D.B.); Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas (H.C., P.K.); and Division of Biochemical Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research/US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Jefferson, Arkansas (S.C., L.G.)
| | - John M Hakenjos
- Center for Drug Discovery, Department of Pathology & Immunology (X.Q., J.M.H., K.R.M., P.N., J.Z.G., S.P., M.M.M., F.L.), NMR and Drug Metabolism Core, Advanced Technology Cores (K.R.M., F.L.), Department of Pharmacology & Chemical Biology (K.R.M., J.W., M.M.M., F.L.), and Department of Molecular & Cellular Biology (S.Y.J., K.-D.B., F.L.), Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas; Department of Pediatrics, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina (M.B., K.-D.B.); Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas (H.C., P.K.); and Division of Biochemical Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research/US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Jefferson, Arkansas (S.C., L.G.)
| | - Kevin R MacKenzie
- Center for Drug Discovery, Department of Pathology & Immunology (X.Q., J.M.H., K.R.M., P.N., J.Z.G., S.P., M.M.M., F.L.), NMR and Drug Metabolism Core, Advanced Technology Cores (K.R.M., F.L.), Department of Pharmacology & Chemical Biology (K.R.M., J.W., M.M.M., F.L.), and Department of Molecular & Cellular Biology (S.Y.J., K.-D.B., F.L.), Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas; Department of Pediatrics, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina (M.B., K.-D.B.); Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas (H.C., P.K.); and Division of Biochemical Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research/US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Jefferson, Arkansas (S.C., L.G.)
| | - Mercedes Barzi
- Center for Drug Discovery, Department of Pathology & Immunology (X.Q., J.M.H., K.R.M., P.N., J.Z.G., S.P., M.M.M., F.L.), NMR and Drug Metabolism Core, Advanced Technology Cores (K.R.M., F.L.), Department of Pharmacology & Chemical Biology (K.R.M., J.W., M.M.M., F.L.), and Department of Molecular & Cellular Biology (S.Y.J., K.-D.B., F.L.), Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas; Department of Pediatrics, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina (M.B., K.-D.B.); Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas (H.C., P.K.); and Division of Biochemical Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research/US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Jefferson, Arkansas (S.C., L.G.)
| | - Hemantkumar Chavan
- Center for Drug Discovery, Department of Pathology & Immunology (X.Q., J.M.H., K.R.M., P.N., J.Z.G., S.P., M.M.M., F.L.), NMR and Drug Metabolism Core, Advanced Technology Cores (K.R.M., F.L.), Department of Pharmacology & Chemical Biology (K.R.M., J.W., M.M.M., F.L.), and Department of Molecular & Cellular Biology (S.Y.J., K.-D.B., F.L.), Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas; Department of Pediatrics, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina (M.B., K.-D.B.); Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas (H.C., P.K.); and Division of Biochemical Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research/US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Jefferson, Arkansas (S.C., L.G.)
| | - Pranavanand Nyshadham
- Center for Drug Discovery, Department of Pathology & Immunology (X.Q., J.M.H., K.R.M., P.N., J.Z.G., S.P., M.M.M., F.L.), NMR and Drug Metabolism Core, Advanced Technology Cores (K.R.M., F.L.), Department of Pharmacology & Chemical Biology (K.R.M., J.W., M.M.M., F.L.), and Department of Molecular & Cellular Biology (S.Y.J., K.-D.B., F.L.), Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas; Department of Pediatrics, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina (M.B., K.-D.B.); Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas (H.C., P.K.); and Division of Biochemical Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research/US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Jefferson, Arkansas (S.C., L.G.)
| | - Jin Wang
- Center for Drug Discovery, Department of Pathology & Immunology (X.Q., J.M.H., K.R.M., P.N., J.Z.G., S.P., M.M.M., F.L.), NMR and Drug Metabolism Core, Advanced Technology Cores (K.R.M., F.L.), Department of Pharmacology & Chemical Biology (K.R.M., J.W., M.M.M., F.L.), and Department of Molecular & Cellular Biology (S.Y.J., K.-D.B., F.L.), Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas; Department of Pediatrics, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina (M.B., K.-D.B.); Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas (H.C., P.K.); and Division of Biochemical Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research/US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Jefferson, Arkansas (S.C., L.G.)
| | - Sung Yun Jung
- Center for Drug Discovery, Department of Pathology & Immunology (X.Q., J.M.H., K.R.M., P.N., J.Z.G., S.P., M.M.M., F.L.), NMR and Drug Metabolism Core, Advanced Technology Cores (K.R.M., F.L.), Department of Pharmacology & Chemical Biology (K.R.M., J.W., M.M.M., F.L.), and Department of Molecular & Cellular Biology (S.Y.J., K.-D.B., F.L.), Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas; Department of Pediatrics, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina (M.B., K.-D.B.); Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas (H.C., P.K.); and Division of Biochemical Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research/US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Jefferson, Arkansas (S.C., L.G.)
| | - Joie Z Guner
- Center for Drug Discovery, Department of Pathology & Immunology (X.Q., J.M.H., K.R.M., P.N., J.Z.G., S.P., M.M.M., F.L.), NMR and Drug Metabolism Core, Advanced Technology Cores (K.R.M., F.L.), Department of Pharmacology & Chemical Biology (K.R.M., J.W., M.M.M., F.L.), and Department of Molecular & Cellular Biology (S.Y.J., K.-D.B., F.L.), Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas; Department of Pediatrics, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina (M.B., K.-D.B.); Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas (H.C., P.K.); and Division of Biochemical Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research/US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Jefferson, Arkansas (S.C., L.G.)
| | - Si Chen
- Center for Drug Discovery, Department of Pathology & Immunology (X.Q., J.M.H., K.R.M., P.N., J.Z.G., S.P., M.M.M., F.L.), NMR and Drug Metabolism Core, Advanced Technology Cores (K.R.M., F.L.), Department of Pharmacology & Chemical Biology (K.R.M., J.W., M.M.M., F.L.), and Department of Molecular & Cellular Biology (S.Y.J., K.-D.B., F.L.), Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas; Department of Pediatrics, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina (M.B., K.-D.B.); Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas (H.C., P.K.); and Division of Biochemical Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research/US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Jefferson, Arkansas (S.C., L.G.)
| | - Lei Guo
- Center for Drug Discovery, Department of Pathology & Immunology (X.Q., J.M.H., K.R.M., P.N., J.Z.G., S.P., M.M.M., F.L.), NMR and Drug Metabolism Core, Advanced Technology Cores (K.R.M., F.L.), Department of Pharmacology & Chemical Biology (K.R.M., J.W., M.M.M., F.L.), and Department of Molecular & Cellular Biology (S.Y.J., K.-D.B., F.L.), Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas; Department of Pediatrics, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina (M.B., K.-D.B.); Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas (H.C., P.K.); and Division of Biochemical Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research/US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Jefferson, Arkansas (S.C., L.G.)
| | - Partha Krishnamurthy
- Center for Drug Discovery, Department of Pathology & Immunology (X.Q., J.M.H., K.R.M., P.N., J.Z.G., S.P., M.M.M., F.L.), NMR and Drug Metabolism Core, Advanced Technology Cores (K.R.M., F.L.), Department of Pharmacology & Chemical Biology (K.R.M., J.W., M.M.M., F.L.), and Department of Molecular & Cellular Biology (S.Y.J., K.-D.B., F.L.), Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas; Department of Pediatrics, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina (M.B., K.-D.B.); Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas (H.C., P.K.); and Division of Biochemical Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research/US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Jefferson, Arkansas (S.C., L.G.)
| | - Karl-Dimiter Bissig
- Center for Drug Discovery, Department of Pathology & Immunology (X.Q., J.M.H., K.R.M., P.N., J.Z.G., S.P., M.M.M., F.L.), NMR and Drug Metabolism Core, Advanced Technology Cores (K.R.M., F.L.), Department of Pharmacology & Chemical Biology (K.R.M., J.W., M.M.M., F.L.), and Department of Molecular & Cellular Biology (S.Y.J., K.-D.B., F.L.), Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas; Department of Pediatrics, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina (M.B., K.-D.B.); Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas (H.C., P.K.); and Division of Biochemical Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research/US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Jefferson, Arkansas (S.C., L.G.)
| | - Stephen Palmer
- Center for Drug Discovery, Department of Pathology & Immunology (X.Q., J.M.H., K.R.M., P.N., J.Z.G., S.P., M.M.M., F.L.), NMR and Drug Metabolism Core, Advanced Technology Cores (K.R.M., F.L.), Department of Pharmacology & Chemical Biology (K.R.M., J.W., M.M.M., F.L.), and Department of Molecular & Cellular Biology (S.Y.J., K.-D.B., F.L.), Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas; Department of Pediatrics, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina (M.B., K.-D.B.); Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas (H.C., P.K.); and Division of Biochemical Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research/US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Jefferson, Arkansas (S.C., L.G.)
| | - Martin M Matzuk
- Center for Drug Discovery, Department of Pathology & Immunology (X.Q., J.M.H., K.R.M., P.N., J.Z.G., S.P., M.M.M., F.L.), NMR and Drug Metabolism Core, Advanced Technology Cores (K.R.M., F.L.), Department of Pharmacology & Chemical Biology (K.R.M., J.W., M.M.M., F.L.), and Department of Molecular & Cellular Biology (S.Y.J., K.-D.B., F.L.), Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas; Department of Pediatrics, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina (M.B., K.-D.B.); Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas (H.C., P.K.); and Division of Biochemical Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research/US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Jefferson, Arkansas (S.C., L.G.)
| | - Feng Li
- Center for Drug Discovery, Department of Pathology & Immunology (X.Q., J.M.H., K.R.M., P.N., J.Z.G., S.P., M.M.M., F.L.), NMR and Drug Metabolism Core, Advanced Technology Cores (K.R.M., F.L.), Department of Pharmacology & Chemical Biology (K.R.M., J.W., M.M.M., F.L.), and Department of Molecular & Cellular Biology (S.Y.J., K.-D.B., F.L.), Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas; Department of Pediatrics, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina (M.B., K.-D.B.); Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas (H.C., P.K.); and Division of Biochemical Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research/US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Jefferson, Arkansas (S.C., L.G.)
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MacKenzie KR, Zhao M, Barzi M, Wang J, Bissig KD, Maletic-Savatic M, Jung SY, Li F. Metabolic profiling of norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor atomoxetine. Eur J Pharm Sci 2020; 153:105488. [PMID: 32712217 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2020.105488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2020] [Revised: 06/25/2020] [Accepted: 07/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Atomoxetine (ATX), a selective and potent inhibitor of the presynaptic norepinephrine transporter, is used mainly to treat attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Although multiple adverse effects associated with ATX have been reported including severe liver injuries, the mechanisms of ATX-related toxicity remain largely unknown. Metabolism frequently contributes to adverse effects of a drug through reactive metabolites, and the bioactivation status of ATX is still not investigated yet. Here, we systematically investigated ATX metabolism, bioactivation, species difference in human, mouse, and rat liver microsomes (HLM, MLM, and RLM) and in mice using metabolomic approaches as mice and rats are commonly used animal models for the studies of drug toxicity. We identified thirty one ATX metabolites and adducts in LMs and mice, 16 of which are novel. In LMs, we uncovered two methoxyamine-trapped aldehydes, two cyclization metabolites, detoluene-ATX, and ATX-N-hydroxylation for the first time. Detoluene-ATX and one cyclization metabolite were also observed in mice. Using chemical inhibitors and recombinant CYP enzymes, we demonstrated that CYP2C8 and CYP2B6 mainly contribute to the formation of aldehyde; CYP2D6 is the dominant enzyme for the formation of ATX cyclization and detoluene-ATX; CYP3A4 is major enzyme responsible for the hydroxylamine formation. The findings concerning aldehydes should be very useful to further elucidate the mechanistic aspects of adverse effects associated with ATX from metabolic angles. Additionally, the species differences for each metabolite should be helpful to investigate the contribution of specific metabolites to ATX toxicity and possible drug-drug interactions in suitable models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin R MacKenzie
- Center for Drug Discovery, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Department of Pathology and Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; NMR and Drug Metabolism Core, Advanced Technology Cores, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Mingkun Zhao
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Mercedes Barzi
- Center for Cell and Gene Therapy, Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Jin Wang
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Karl-Dimiter Bissig
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Center for Cell and Gene Therapy, Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Mirjana Maletic-Savatic
- Center for Drug Discovery, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Sung Yun Jung
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Feng Li
- Center for Drug Discovery, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Department of Pathology and Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; NMR and Drug Metabolism Core, Advanced Technology Cores, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
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Li F, MacKenzie KR, Jain P, Santini C, Young DW, Matzuk MM. Metabolism of JQ1, an inhibitor of bromodomain and extra terminal bromodomain proteins, in human and mouse liver microsomes†. Biol Reprod 2020; 103:427-436. [PMID: 32285106 PMCID: PMC7401416 DOI: 10.1093/biolre/ioaa043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2020] [Revised: 03/30/2020] [Accepted: 04/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
JQ1 is a small-molecule inhibitor of the bromodomain and extra terminal (BET) protein family that potently inhibits the bromodomain testis-specific protein (BRDT), which is essential for spermatogenesis. JQ1 treatment produces a reversible contraceptive effect by targeting the activity of BRDT in mouse male germ cells, validating BRDT as a male contraceptive target. Although JQ1 possesses favourable physical properties, it exhibits a short half-life. Because the details of xenobiotic metabolism play important roles in the optimization of drug candidates and in determining the role of metabolism in drug efficacy, we investigated the metabolism of JQ1 in human and mouse liver microsomes. We present the first comprehensive view of JQ1 metabolism in liver microsomes, distinguishing nine JQ1 metabolites, including three monohydroxylated, one de-tert-butylated, two dihydroxylated, one monohydroxylated/dehydrogenated, one monohydroxylated-de-tert-butylated and one dihydroxylated/dehydrogenated variant of JQ1. The dominant metabolite (M1) in both human and mouse liver microsomes is monohydroxylated on the fused three-ring core. Using recombinant cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes, chemical inhibitors and the liver S9 fraction of Cyp3a-null mice, we identify enzymes that contribute to the formation of these metabolites. Cytochrome P450 family 3 subfamily A member 4 (CYP3A4) is the main contributor to the production of JQ1 metabolites in vitro, and the CYP3A4/5 inhibitor ketoconazole strongly inhibits JQ1 metabolism in both human and mouse liver microsomes. Our findings suggest that JQ1 half-life and efficacy might be improved in vivo by co-administration of a selective CYP inhibitor, thereby impacting the use of JQ1 as a probe for BRDT activity in spermatogenesis and as a probe or therapeutic in other systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng Li
- Center for Drug Discovery, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.,Department of Pathology and Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.,Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.,NMR and Drug Metabolism Core, Advanced Technology Cores, Baylor College of Medicine Houston, TX, USA
| | - Kevin R MacKenzie
- Center for Drug Discovery, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.,Department of Pathology and Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.,Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.,NMR and Drug Metabolism Core, Advanced Technology Cores, Baylor College of Medicine Houston, TX, USA
| | - Prashi Jain
- Center for Drug Discovery, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.,Department of Pathology and Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Conrad Santini
- Center for Drug Discovery, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.,Department of Pathology and Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Damian W Young
- Center for Drug Discovery, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.,Department of Pathology and Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.,Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Martin M Matzuk
- Center for Drug Discovery, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.,Department of Pathology and Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.,Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
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