Recent Advances in Pharmaceutical Cocrystals: From Bench to Market

Crystal structure-mechanical property relationship in succinic acid and L- alanine probed by nanoindentation

Establishing structure-mechanical property relationships is crucial for understanding and engineering the performance of pharmaceutical molecular crystals. In this study, we employed nanoindentation, a powerful technique that can probe mechanical properties at the nanoscale, to investigate the hardness and elastic modulus of single crystals of succinic acid and L-alanine. Nanoindentation results reveal distinct mechanical behaviors between the two compounds, with L-alanine exhibiting significantly higher hardness and elastic modulus compared to succinic acid. These differences are attributed to the underlying variations in molecular crystal structures - the three-dimensional bonding network and high intermolecular interaction energies of L-alanine molecules leads to its stiffness compared to the layered and weakly bonded crystal structure of succinic acid. Furthermore, the anisotropic nature of succinic acid is reflected in the directional dependence of the mechanical responses where it has been found that the (111) plane is more resistant to indentation than (100). By directly correlating the nanomechanical properties obtained from nanoindentation with the detailed crystal structures, this study provides important insights into how differences in molecular arrangements can translate into different macroscopic mechanical performance. These findings have implications on the selection of molecular crystals for optimized drug manufacturability.

Analysis of the Dissolution Behavior of Theophylline and Its Cocrystal Using ATR-FTIR Spectroscopic Imaging

Attenuated total reflection-Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopic imaging is a powerful tool to visualize the distribution of components, and it has been used to analyze drug release from tablets. In this work, ATR-FTIR spectroscopic imaging was applied for observing the dissolution of molecular crystals from tablet compacts. The IR spectra provided chemically specific information about the transformation of crystal structures during the dissolution experiments. Theophylline (TPL) anhydrate and its cocrystals were used as model systems of molecular crystals. The IR spectra during the dissolution of TPL revealed information about the crystal structure of TPL, which transformed from anhydrate to monohydrate in water. During a dissolution test of a model cocrystal system, it was suggested that an active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) and a coformer were dissolved in water simultaneously. The IR spectra that were acquired during the dissolution of a cocrystal tablet showed new spectral bands attributed to the API after 5 min. This suggested that the precipitation of API was observed during the dissolution experiment. Measurements from ATR-FTIR spectroscopic imaging can visualize the drug release from the tablet and determine the transformation of molecular crystals during their dissolution. These results will have an impact on clarifying the dissolution mechanism of molecular crystals.

Study of the preparation, characterization, and solubility of lidocaine complexed with 5-sulfosalicylic acid dihydrate

OBJECTIVE

This study was to prepare solid dispersions of lidocaine (Lid) with 5-sulfosalicylic acid dihydrate (SSA) by freeze-drying (freeze-dried [FD] Lid/SSA = 1/1) and to evaluate their physical properties.

METHODS

Here, we evaluated the physicochemical properties and solubility of solid dispersions of Lid and SSA prepared by freeze-drying (freeze-dried [FD] Lid/SSA = 1/1).

RESULTS

Differential scanning calorimetry measurements showed that after freeze-drying, the endothermic peak due to Lid melting, the dehydration peak, and the endothermic peak due to SSA melting disappeared. Powder X-ray diffraction results showed that the characteristic Lid and SSA peaks disappeared after freeze-drying, indicating a halo pattern. The near-infrared spectroscopy results suggested that Lid-derived -NH and -CH groups and the Lid-derived -OH and -CH groups from the SSA peak shifted and broadened after freeze-drying, suggesting their involvement in complex formation through Lid/SSA intermolecular interactions. Nuclear Overhauser effect spectroscopy-nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) measurements showed a cross-peak due to the interaction between the Lid-derived -CH group and the SSA-derived -OH group, suggesting hydrogen bonding. Diffusion-ordered spectroscopy NMR measurements showed that the diffusion coefficients of Lid and SSA aggregated in FD Lid/SSA, suggesting a change in Lid dispersibility in the solvent owing to the formation of a complex with SSA. The solubility of FD Lid/SSA was approximately 88 mg/mL (∼20-fold higher than that of Lid).

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that complex formation occurred in FD Lid/SSA; this enhanced the solubility of this dispersion.

A New Look at the Mechanism of Cocrystal Formation and Coformers Exchange in Processes Forced by Mechanical and/or Thermal Stimuli - ex situ and in situ Studies of Low-Melting Eutectic Mixtures

Three different devices: ball mill, hot stage melting, and magic angle spinning (MAS) NMR rotor were used for the preparation of ethenzamide (ET) cocrystals with glutaric acid (GLU), ethylmalonic acid (EMA) and maleic acid (MAL) as coformers. In each case, well-defined binary systems (ET:EMA, ET:GLU, ET:MAL) were obtained. The common features of the two solvent free methods of cocrystal formation (grinding, melting) are presented on the basis of arguments obtained by solid state NMR spectroscopy. Thermal analysis (Differential Scanning Calorimetry) proved that the eutectic phase arises over a wide range of molar ratios of components for each of the binary systems. NMR techniques, supported by theoretical calculations, allowed to provide details about the pathway of the reaction mechanism with atomic accuracy. It was found that the formation of ET cocrystals is a complex process that requires five steps. Each step has been recognized and described. Variable temperature 1D and 2D MAS NMR experiments allowed to track physicochemical processes taking place in a molten state. Moreover, it was found that in a multicomponent mixture consisting of all four components, ET, EMA, GLU, and MAL, ET in the molten phase behaves as a specific selector choosing only one partner to form binary cocrystals according to energy preferences. The process of exchange of coformers in binary systems during grinding, melting, and NMR measurements is described. The stabilization energies (Estab ) and molecular electrostatic potential (MEP) maps computed for the cocrystals under discussion and their individual components rationalize the selection rules and explain the relationships between individual species.

Complementary supramolecular drug associates in perfecting the multidrug therapy against multidrug resistant bacteria

The inappropriate and inconsistent use of antibiotics in combating multidrug-resistant bacteria exacerbates their drug resistance through a few distinct pathways. Firstly, these bacteria can accumulate multiple genes, each conferring resistance to a specific drug, within a single cell. This accumulation usually takes place on resistance plasmids (R). Secondly, multidrug resistance can arise from the heightened expression of genes encoding multidrug efflux pumps, which expel a broad spectrum of drugs from the bacterial cells. Additionally, bacteria can also eliminate or destroy antibiotic molecules by modifying enzymes or cell walls and removing porins. A significant limitation of traditional multidrug therapy lies in its inability to guarantee the simultaneous delivery of various drug molecules to a specific bacterial cell, thereby fostering incremental drug resistance in either of these paths. Consequently, this approach prolongs the treatment duration. Rather than using a biologically unimportant coformer in forming cocrystals, another drug molecule can be selected either for protecting another drug molecule or, can be selected for its complementary activities to kill a bacteria cell synergistically. The development of a multidrug cocrystal not only improves tabletability and plasticity but also enables the simultaneous delivery of multiple drugs to a specific bacterial cell, philosophically perfecting multidrug therapy. By adhering to the fundamental tenets of multidrug therapy, the synergistic effects of these drug molecules can effectively eradicate bacteria, even before they have the chance to develop resistance. This approach has the potential to shorten treatment periods, reduce costs, and mitigate drug resistance. Herein, four hypotheses are presented to create complementary drug cocrystals capable of simultaneously reaching bacterial cells, effectively destroying them before multidrug resistance can develop. The ongoing surge in the development of novel drugs provides another opportunity in the fight against bacteria that are constantly gaining resistance to existing treatments. This endeavour holds the potential to combat a wide array of multidrug-resistant bacteria.

Sugars and Polyols of Natural Origin as Carriers for Solubility and Dissolution Enhancement

Crystalline carriers such as dextrose, sucrose, galactose, mannitol, sorbitol, and isomalt have been reported to increase the solubility, and dissolution rates of poorly soluble drugs when employed as carriers in solid dispersions (SDs). However, synthetic polymers dominate the preparation of drugs: excipient SDs have been created in recent years, but these polymer-based SDs exhibit the major drawback of recrystallisation upon storage. Also, the use of high-molecular-weight polymers with increased chain lengths brings forth problems such as increased viscosity and unnecessary bulkiness in the resulting dosage form. An ideal SD carrier should be hydrophilic, non-hygroscopic, have high hydrogen-bonding propensity, have a high glass transition temperature (Tg), and be safe to use. This review discusses sugars and polyols as suitable carriers for SDs, as they possess several ideal characteristics. Recently, the use of low-molecular-weight excipients has gained much interest in developing SDs. However, there are limited options available for safe, low molecular excipients, which opens the door again for sugars and polyols. The major points of this review focus on the successes and failures of employing sugars and polyols in the preparation of SDs in the past, recent advances, and potential future applications for the solubility enhancement of poorly water-soluble drugs.

Ketoprofen, lysine and gabapentin co-crystal magnifies synergistic efficacy and tolerability of the constituent drugs: Pre-clinical evidences towards an innovative therapeutic approach for neuroinflammatory pain

Chronic pain is an enormous public health concern, and its treatment is still an unmet medical need. Starting from data highlighting the promising effects of some nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in combination with gabapentin in pain treatment, we sought to combine ketoprofen lysine salt (KLS) and gabapentin to obtain an effective multimodal therapeutic approach for chronic pain. Using relevant in vitro models, we first demonstrated that KLS and gabapentin have supra-additive effects in modulating key pathways in neuropathic pain and gastric mucosal damage. To leverage these supra-additive effects, we then chemically combined the two drugs via co-crystallization to yield a new compound, a ternary drug-drug co-crystal of ketoprofen, lysine and gabapentin (KLS-GABA co-crystal). Physicochemical, biodistribution and pharmacokinetic studies showed that within the co-crystal, ketoprofen reaches an increased gastrointestinal solubility and permeability, as well as a higher systemic exposure in vivo compared to KLS alone or in combination with gabapentin, while both the constituent drugs have increased central nervous system permeation. These unique characteristics led to striking, synergistic anti-nociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects of KLS-GABA co-crystal, as well as significantly reduced spinal neuroinflammation, in translational inflammatory and neuropathic pain rat models, suggesting that the synergistic therapeutic effects of the constituent drugs are further boosted by the co-crystallization. Notably, while strengthening the therapeutic effects of ketoprofen, KLS-GABA co-crystal showed remarkable gastrointestinal tolerability in both inflammatory and chronic neuropathic pain rat models. In conclusion, these results allow us to propose KLS-GABA co-crystal as a new drug candidate with high potential clinical benefit-to-risk ratio for chronic pain treatment.

Cocrystals by Design: A Rational Coformer Selection Approach for Tackling the API Problems

Active pharmaceutical ingredients (API) with unfavorable physicochemical properties and stability present a significant challenge during their processing into final dosage forms. Cocrystallization of such APIs with suitable coformers is an efficient approach to mitigate the solubility and stability concerns. A considerable number of cocrystal-based products are currently being marketed and show an upward trend. However, to improve the API properties by cocrystallization, coformer selection plays a paramount role. Selection of suitable coformers not only improves the drug's physicochemical properties but also improves the therapeutic effectiveness and reduces side effects. Numerous coformers have been used till date to prepare pharmaceutically acceptable cocrystals. The carboxylic acid-based coformers, such as fumaric acid, oxalic acid, succinic acid, and citric acid, are the most commonly used coformers in the currently marketed cocrystal-based products. Carboxylic acid-based coformers are capable of forming the hydrogen bond and contain smaller carbon chain with the APIs. This review summarizes the role of coformers in improving the physicochemical and pharmaceutical properties of APIs, and deeply explains the utility of afore-mentioned coformers in API cocrystal formation. The review concludes with a brief discussion on the patentability and regulatory issues related to pharmaceutical cocrystals.

New Lidocaine-Based Pharmaceutical Cocrystals: Preparation, Characterization, and Influence of the Racemic vs. Enantiopure Coformer on the Physico-Chemical Properties

This study describes the preparation, characterization, and influence of the enantiopure vs. racemic coformer on the physico-chemical properties of a pharmaceutical cocrystal. For that purpose, two new 1:1 cocrystals, namely lidocaine:dl-menthol and lidocaine:d-menthol, were prepared. The menthol racemate-based cocrystal was evaluated by means of X-ray diffraction, infrared spectroscopy, Raman, thermal analysis, and solubility experiments. The results were exhaustively compared with the first menthol-based pharmaceutical cocrystal, i.e., lidocaine:l-menthol, discovered in our group 12 years ago. Furthermore, the stable lidocaine/dl-menthol phase diagram has been screened, thoroughly evaluated, and compared to the enantiopure phase diagram. Thus, it has been proven that the racemic vs. enantiopure coformer leads to increased solubility and improved dissolution of lidocaine due to the low stable form induced by menthol molecular disorder in the lidocaine:dl-menthol cocrystal. To date, the 1:1 lidocaine:dl-menthol cocrystal is the third menthol-based pharmaceutical cocrystal, after the 1:1 lidocaine:l-menthol and the 1:2 lopinavir:l-menthol cocrystals reported in 2010 and 2022, respectively. Overall, this study shows promising potential for designing new materials with both improved characteristics and functional properties in the fields of pharmaceutical sciences and crystal engineering.

New Solid Forms of Nitrofurantoin and 4-Aminopyridine Salt: Influence of Salt Hydration Level on Crystal Packing and Physicochemical Properties

The crystallization of the poorly soluble drug nitrofurantoin (NFT) with 4-aminopyridine (4AmPy) resulted in three multicomponent solid forms with different hydration levels: anhydrous salt [NFT+4AmPy] (1:1), salt monohydrate [NFT+4AmPy+H₂O] (1:1:1), and salt tetrahydrate [NFT+4AmPy+H₂O] (1:1:4). Each salt was selectively prepared by liquid-assisted grinding in the presence of acetonitrile or ethanol/water mixture at a specific composition. The NFT hydrated salts were characterized using single crystal X-ray diffraction. The [NFT+4AmPy+H₂O] salt (1:1:1) crystallized as an isolated site hydrate, while the [NFT+4AmPy+H₂O] salt (1:1:4) crystallized as a channel hydrate. The dehydration processes of the NFT salt hydrates were investigated using differential scanning calorimetry and thermogravimetric analysis. A powder dissolution experiment was carried out for all NFT multicomponent solid forms in pH 7.4 phosphate buffer solution at 37 °C.

Pharmaceutical Co-crystal of Antiviral Agent Efavirenz with Nicotinamide for the Enhancement of Solubility, Physicochemical Stability, and Oral Bioavailability

The present research work attempted to improve the oral bioavailability of the antiviral drug Efavirenz (EFV) using a pharmaceutical cocrystallization technique. EFV comes under BCS-II and has extremely low water solubility, and results in low oral bioavailability. EFV and nicotinamide (NICO) were selected in a (1:1) stoichiometric ratio and efavirenz nicotinamide cocrystal (ENCOC) was prepared through the liquid-assisted grinding method (LAG). The confirmation of the formation of a new solid phase was done through spectroscopic techniques like Fourier transmission infrared (FTIR), Raman, and ¹³C solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (¹³C ssNMR). Thermal techniques like differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and hot stage microscopy (HSM) illustrated the thermal behavior and melting patterns of ENCOC, EFV, and NICO. The X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD) confirms the formation of a new crystalline phase in ENCOC. The Morphology was determined through scanning electron microscopy (FESEM). The results of saturated solubility studies and in vitro drug release studies exhibited 8.9-fold enhancement in solubility and 2.56-fold enhancement in percentage cumulative drug release. The percentage drug content of ENCOC was found higher than 97% and cocrystal exhibits excellent accelerated stability. The oral bioavailability of EFV (C_max, 799.08 ng/mL) exhibits significant enhancement after cocrystallization (C_max, 5597.09 ng/mL) than EFV and Efcure®-200 tablet (2896.21 ng/mL). The current work investigates the scalable and cost-effective method for enhancement of physicochemical stability, solubility, and oral bioavailability of an antiviral agent EFV.

Nano- and Crystal Engineering Approaches in the Development of Therapeutic Agents for Neoplastic Diseases

Cancer is a leading cause of death worldwide. It is a global quandary that requires the administration of many different active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) with different characteristics. As is the case with many APIs, cancer treatments exhibit poor aqueous solubility which can lead to low drug absorption, increased doses, and subsequently poor bioavailability and the occurrence of more adverse events. Several strategies have been envisaged to overcome this drawback, specifically for the treatment of neoplastic diseases. These include crystal engineering, in which new crystal structures are formed to improve drug physicochemical properties, and/or nanoengineering in which the reduction in particle size of the pristine crystal results in much improved physicochemical properties. Co-crystals, which are supramolecular complexes that comprise of an API and a co-crystal former (CCF) held together by non-covalent interactions in crystal lattice, have been developed to improve the performance of some anti-cancer drugs. Similarly, nanosizing through the formation of nanocrystals and, in some cases, the use of both crystal and nanoengineering to obtain nano co-crystals (NCC) have been used to increase the solubility as well as overall performance of many anticancer drugs. The formulation process of both micron and sub-micron crystalline formulations for the treatment of cancers makes use of relatively simple techniques and minimal amounts of excipients aside from stabilizers and co-formers. The flexibility of these crystalline formulations with regards to routes of administration and ability to target neoplastic tissue makes them ideal strategies for effectiveness of cancer treatments. In this review, we describe the use of crystalline formulations for the treatment of various neoplastic diseases. In addition, this review attempts to highlight the gaps in the current translation of these potential treatments into authorized medicines for use in clinical practice.

Lymphatic targeting for therapeutic application using nanoparticulate systems

The lymphatic system has grasped attention of researchers to a greater extent. The conventional methods of lymphatic delivery are now being modified to include nanotechnology to enhance the targeting of the drug at the specific pathological site. Scientists have worked successfully on different drug loaded nanocarriers that are modulated for the lymphatic system targeting for the treatment of various fatal diseases. Huge strides have been made in methods of delivery of these drugs either individually or in combination along with nanoparticles, therapeutic genes, and vaccines. However, the products introduced for commercial use are almost near nil. Altogether, there are challenges that need to be resolved and studies that are meant to be done for further improvements. The current review focuses on the understanding and pathophysiology of the lymphatic system and changes that occur during disease, drug characteristics, and physicochemical parameters that influence the lymphatic uptake of drugs and different nanocarriers. We further highlight different potential results obtained over the years with nanocarriers and other delivery methods to effectively target the lymphatic system for their therapeutic application. The challenges and drawbacks governing the lack of products available clinically have also been discussed.

Simultaneous Improvement of Dissolution Behavior and Oral Bioavailability of Antifungal Miconazole via Cocrystal and Salt Formation

Miconazole shows low oral bioavailability in humans due to poor aqueous solubility, although it has demonstrated various pharmacological activities such as antifungal, anti-tubercular and anti-tumor effects. Cocrystal/salt formation is one of the effective methods for solving this problem. In this study, different methods (liquid-assisted grinding, slurrying and lyophilization) were used to investigate their impact on the formation of the miconazole multicomponent crystals with succinic, maleic and dl-tartaric acids. The solid state of the prepared powder was characterized by differential scanning calorimetry, powder X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy. It was found that lyophilization not only promotes partial amorphization of both salts but also allows obtaining a new polymorph of the miconazole salt with dl-tartaric acid. The lyophilized salts compared with the same samples prepared by two other methods showed better dissolution rates but low stability during the studies due to rapid recrystallization. Overall, it was determined that the preparation method of multicomponent crystals affects the solid-state characteristics and miconazole physicochemical properties significantly. The in vivo studies revealed that the miconazole multicomponent crystals indicated the higher peak blood concentration and area under the curve from 0 to 32 h values 2.4-, 2.9- and 4.6-fold higher than the pure drug. Therefore, this study demonstrated that multicomponent crystals are promising formulations for enhancing the oral bioavailability of poorly soluble compounds.

Differences in Coformer Interactions of the 2,4-Diaminopyrimidines Pyrimethamine and Trimethoprim

The identification and study of supramolecular synthons is a fundamental task in the design of pharmaceutical cocrystals. The malaria drug pyrimethamine (pyr) and the antibiotic trimethoprim (tmp) are both 2,4-diaminopyrimidine derivatives, providing the same C-NH2/N=C/C-NH2 and C-NH2/N=C interaction sites. In this article, we analyze and compare the synthons observed in the crystal structures of tmp and pyr cocrystals and molecular salts with sulfamethazine (smz), α-ketoglutaric acid (keto), oxalic acid (ox), sebacic acid (seb), and azeliac acid (az). We show that the same coformer interacts with different binding sites of the 2,4-diaminopyrimidine ring in the respective tmp and pyr cocrystals or binds at the same site but gives H bonding patterns with different graph set notions. Pyr·smz·CH3OH is the first crystal structure in which the interaction of the sulfa drug at the C-NH2/N=C/C-NH2 site with three parallel NH2···N, N···NHsulfonamide, and NH2···O=S H bonds is observed. The main synthon in (tmp+)(keto-).0.5H2O and (tmp+)2(ox2-)·2CH3OH is the motif of fused R 2 1(6) and R 1 2(5) rings instead of the R 2 2(8) motif typically observed in tmp+ and pyr+ carboxylates. Tmp/az is a rare example of cocrystal-salt polymorphism where the two solid-state forms have the same composition, stoichiometry, and main synthon. Theoretical calculations were performed to understand the order of stability, which is tmp·az cocrystal > (tmp+)(az-) salt. Finally, two three-component tmp/sulfa drug/carboxylate cocrystals with a unique ternary synthon are described.

Experimental and Hirshfeld Surface Investigations for Unexpected Aminophenazone Cocrystal Formation under Thiourea Reaction Conditions via Possible Enamine Assisted Rearrangement

Considering the astounding biomedicine properties of pharmaceutically active drug, 4-aminophenazone, also known as 4-aminoantipyrine, the work reported in this manuscript details the formation of novel cocrystals of rearranged 4-aminophenazone and 4-nitro-N-(4-nitrobenzoyl) benzamide in 1:1 stoichiometry under employed conditions for thiourea synthesis by exploiting the use of its active amino component. However, detailed analysis via various characterization techniques such as FT-IR, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and single crystal XRD, for this unforeseen, but useful cocrystalline synthetic adduct (4 and 5) prompted us to delve into its mechanistic pathway under provided reaction conditions. The coformer 4-nitro-N-(4-nitrobenzoyl) benzamide originates via nucleophilic addition reaction following tetrahedral mechanism between para-nitro substituted benzoyl amide and its acid halide (1). While the enamine nucleophilic addition reaction by 4-aminophenazone on 4-nitrosubstituted aroyl isothiocyanates under reflux temperature suggests the emergence of rearranged counterpart of cocrystal named N-(1,5-dimethyl-3-oxo-2-phenyl-2,3-dihydro-1H-pyrazole-4-carbonothioyl)-4-nitrobenzamide. Crystallographic studies reveal triclinic system P-1 space group for cocrystal (4 and 5) and depicts two different crystallographically independent molecules with prominent C–H···O and N–H···O hydrogen bonding effective for structure stabilization. Hirshfeld surface analysis also displays hydrogen bonding and van der Waals interactions as dominant interactions in crystal packing. Further insight into the cocrystal synthetic methodologies supported the occurrence of solution-based evaporation/cocrystallization methodology in our case during purification step, promoting the synthesis of this first-ever reported novel cocrystal of 4-aminophenazone with promising future application in medicinal industry.

Novel Cocrystals of Vonoprazan: Machine Learning-Assisted Discovery

Vonoprazan (VPZ) is the first-in-class potassium-competitive acid blocker (P-CAB), and has many advantages over proton pump inhibitors (PPIs). It is administered as a fumarate salt for the treatment of acid-related diseases, including reflux esophagitis, gastric ulcer, and duodenal ulcer, and for eradication of Helicobacter pylori. To discover novel cocrystals of VPZ, we adopted an artificial neural network (ANN)-based machine learning model as a virtual screening tool that can guide selection of the most promising coformers for VPZ cocrystals. Experimental screening by liquid-assisted grinding (LAG) confirmed that 8 of 19 coformers selected by the ANN model were likely to create new solid forms with VPZ. Structurally similar benzenediols and benzenetriols, i.e., catechol (CAT), resorcinol (RES), hydroquinone (HYQ), and pyrogallol (GAL), were used as coformers to obtain phase pure cocrystals with VPZ by reaction crystallization. We successfully prepared and characterized three novel cocrystals: VPZ–RES, VPZ–CAT, and VPZ–GAL. VPZ–RES had the highest solubility among the novel cocrystals studied here, and was even more soluble than the commercially available fumarate salt of VPZ in solution at pH 6.8. In addition, novel VPZ cocrystals had superior stability in aqueous media than VPZ fumarates, demonstrating their potential for improved pharmaceutical performance.