Cost effectiveness analyses of pharmacological treatments in heart failure

Applications of SGLT2 inhibitors beyond glycaemic control

Sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors were initially developed for their glucose-lowering effects and have shown a modest glycaemic benefit in people with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). In the past decade, a series of large, robust clinical trials of these therapies have demonstrated striking beneficial effects for various care goals, transforming the chronic disease therapeutic landscape. Cardiovascular safety studies in people with T2DM demonstrated that SGLT2 inhibitors reduce cardiovascular death and hospitalization for heart failure. Subsequent trials in participants with heart failure with reduced or preserved left ventricular ejection fraction demonstrated that SGLT2 inhibitors have beneficial effects on heart failure outcomes. In dedicated kidney outcome studies, SGLT2 inhibitors reduced the incidence of kidney failure among participants with or without diabetes. Post hoc analyses have suggested a range of other benefits of these drugs in conditions as diverse as metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease, kidney stone prevention and anaemia. SGLT2 inhibitors have a generally favourable adverse effect profile, although patient selection and medication counselling remain important. Concerted efforts are needed to better integrate these agents into routine care and support long-term medication adherence to close the gap between clinical trial outcomes and those achieved in the real world.

Is Using Sodium-Glucose Cotransporter-2 Inhibitors to Treat Adults with Chronic Heart Failure Cost-Effective? A Systematic Review of Cost-Effectiveness Studies

OBJECTIVE

This systematic review aimed to summarise the outcomes of economic evaluations that evaluated sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors (SGLT2i) in combination with standard of care compared to standard of care alone for patients with chronic heart failure.

METHODS

This systematic review searched MEDLINE, CINAHL+, Econlit, Scopus, the Cochrane Library, the National Health Service Economic Evaluation Database and the Cost-Effectiveness Analysis Registry from inception to 31 December, 2022, for relevant economic evaluations, which were critically appraised using the Consolidated Health Economic Evaluation Reporting Standards (CHEERS) and Bias in Economic Evaluation (ECOBIAS) criteria. The costs, quality-adjusted life-years, incremental cost-effectiveness ratios and cost-effectiveness thresholds were qualitatively analysed. Net monetary benefits at different decision thresholds were also computed. Subgroup analyses addressing the heterogeneity of economic outcomes were conducted. All costs were adjusted to 2023 international dollar (US$) values using the CCEMG-EPPI-Centre cost converter.

RESULTS

Thirty-nine economic evaluations that evaluated dapagliflozin and empagliflozin in patients with heart failure were found: 32 for the left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) ≤ 40% and seven for LVEF > 40%. Sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors were cost-effective in all but two economic evaluations for LVEF > 40%. Economic outcomes varied widely, but favoured SGLT2i use in LVEF ≤ 40% over LVEF > 40% and upper-middle income over high-income countries. At a threshold of US$30,000/quality-adjusted life-year, ~ 90% of high to upper-middle income countries would consider SGLT2i cost-effective for heart failure treatment. The generalisability of study findings to low- and low-middle income countries is limited because of insufficient evidence.

CONCLUSIONS

Using SGLT2i to treat heart failure is cost-effective, with more certainty in LVEF ≤ 40% compared to LVEF > 40%. Policymakers in jurisdictions where economic evaluations are not available could potentially use this study's findings to make informed decisions about treatment adoption.

SYSTEMATIC REVIEW PROTOCOL REGISTRATION

This study protocol was registered with the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO; CRD42023388701).

Economic Evaluations of Guideline-Directed Medical Therapies for Heart Failure With Reduced Ejection Fraction: A Systematic Review

OBJECTIVES

Decision-analytic models (DAMs) with varying structures and assumptions have been applied in economic evaluations (EEs) to assist decision making for heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) therapeutics. This systematic review aimed to summarize and critically appraise the EEs of guideline-directed medical therapies (GDMTs) for HFrEF.

METHODS

A systematic search of English articles and gray literature, published from January 2010, was performed on databases including MEDLINE, Embase, Scopus, NHSEED, health technology assessment, Cochrane Library, etc. The included studies were EEs with DAMs that compared the costs and outcomes of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, angiotensin-receptor blockers, angiotensin-receptor neprilysin inhibitors, beta-blockers, mineralocorticoid-receptor agonists, and sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors. The study quality was evaluated using the Bias in Economic Evaluation (ECOBIAS) 2015 checklist and Consolidated Health Economic Evaluation Reporting Standards (CHEERS) 2022 checklists.

RESULTS

A total of 59 EEs were included. Markov model, with a lifetime horizon and a monthly cycle length, was most commonly used in evaluating GDMTs for HFrEF. Most EEs conducted in the high-income countries demonstrated that novel GDMTs for HFrEF were cost-effective compared with the standard of care, with the standardized median incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) of $21 361/quality-adjusted life-year. The key factors influencing ICERs and study conclusions included model structures, input parameters, clinical heterogeneity, and country-specific willingness-to-pay threshold.

CONCLUSIONS

Novel GDMTs were cost-effective compared with the standard of care. Given the heterogeneity of the DAMs and ICERs, alongside variations in willingness-to-pay thresholds across countries, there is a need to conduct country-specific EEs, particularly in low- and middle-income countries, using model structures that are coherent with the local decision context.

SGLT2 inhibitors for patients with heart failure with preserved ejection fraction in China: a cost-effectiveness study

Background: The potential benefits of intervention with empagliflozin or dapagliflozin for patients with heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) were first demonstrated in the EMPEROR-Preserved and DELIVER studies. However, the cost-effectiveness of this intervention (empagliflozin or dapagliflozin) is yet to be established. Methods: In the context of Chinese healthcare, a Markov model was proposed, which incorporates clinical outcomes from the EMPEROR-Preserved and DELIVER studies, to predict the utility and costs over a lifetime. The time horizon was 20 years, and a 5% discount rate was applied to the costs and utilities. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) threshold against willingness to pay (WTP) was set as the primary outcome. The robustness of the decision was evaluated using sensitivity analyses. Results: After a simulated 20-year lifetime, a 72-year-old patient with HFpEF in the intervention group (empagliflozin) showed an increase of 0.44 quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) and $1,623.58 with an ICER of $3,691.56 per QALY, which was lower than the WTP threshold of $12,032.10 per QALY. A 72-year-old patient with HFpEF in the intervention group (dapagliflozin) showed an increase of 0.34 QALYs and $2,002.13 with an ICER of $5,907.79 per QALY, which was lower than the WTP threshold of $12,032.10 per QALY. One-way sensitivity analyses showed that cardiovascular (CV) mortality in the intervention and comparator groups was the most sensitive to the decision. Cost-effectiveness was demonstrated in the intervention group (empagliflozin or dapagliflozin) in 67.9% or 62.2% of 1000 Monte Carlo simulations, respectively. Conclusion: In Chinese healthcare, the interventions (empagliflozin or dapagliflozin) for HFpEF were more cost-effective than the comparators. Our study has provided a quantitative evaluation of the costs and benefits of such interventions for a lifetime using the model.