Recent advances in nanoparticle applications in respiratory disorders: a review

The Toxicological Profile of Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients-Containing Nanoparticles: Classification, Mechanistic Pathways, and Health Implications

Nanotechnology is the manipulation of matter on an atomic and molecular scale, producing a lot of new substances with properties that are not necessarily easily expected based on present knowledge. Nanotechnology produces substances with unique properties that can be beneficial or harmful depending on their biocompatibility and distribution. Understanding nanomaterial toxicity is essential to ensure their safe application in biological and environmental applications. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of nanoparticle toxicity, focusing on their physicochemical properties, mechanisms of cellular uptake, and potential health risks. Key factors influencing toxicity include particle size, shape, concentration, aspect ratio, crystallinity, surface charge, dissolution, and agglomeration. Nanoparticles can induce oxidative stress and inflammation, contributing to adverse effects when inhaled, ingested, or applied to the skin. However, their toxicity may not be limited to just these pathways, as they can also exhibit other toxic properties, such as activation of the apoptotic pathway and mitochondrial damage. By summarizing the current knowledge on these aspects, this article intends to support the development of nanoparticles in a safer way for future applications.

Treatment of lung diseases via nanoparticles and nanorobots: Are these viable alternatives to overcome current treatments?

Challenges

Respiratory diseases remain challenging to treat, with current efforts primarily focused on managing symptoms rather than maintaining overall lung health. Traditional treatment methods, such as oral or parenteral administration of antiviral, antibacterial, and anti-inflammatory drugs, face limitations. These include difficulty in delivering therapeutic agents to pathogens residing deep in the airways and the risk of severe side effects due to high systemic drug concentrations. The growing threat of drug-resistant pathogens further complicates infection management.

Advancements

The lung's large surface area offers an attractive target for inhalation-based drug delivery. Nanoparticles (NP) enable uniform and sustained drug distribution across the alveolar network, overcoming challenges posed by complex lung anatomy. Recent breakthroughs in nanorobots (NR) have demonstrated precise navigation through biological environments, delivering therapies directly to affected lung areas with enhanced accuracy. Nanotechnology has also shown promise in treating lung cancer, with nanoparticles engineered to overcome biological barriers, improve drug solubility, and enable controlled drug release.

Future scope

This review explores the progress of NP and NR in addressing challenges in pulmonary drug delivery. These innovations allow targeted delivery of nucleic acids, drugs, or peptides to the pulmonary epithelium with unprecedented accuracy, offering significant potential for improving therapeutic effectiveness in respiratory disorders.

Evolution of large stokes shift and non-radiative energy transfer phenomenon in sustainable blue-fluorescent CQDs upon subnanomolar detection of Acebrophylline

Carbon quantum dots (CQDs) have emerged as powerful fluorescent sensors for identifying harmful compounds in environmental and biological samples, due to their robust and adjustable emission characteristics. In this study, we explore CQDs (size ∼ 3 nm), as a probe, derived from Walnut Shell (WS) biomass waste for detecting Acebrophylline (AB), a respiratory disease medicine. From the selectivity studies, the calculated energy transfer between the CQDs (10 mM; donor) and AB (10 mM; acceptor) was found to be 64 %, attributed to the formation of a ground state complex, CQDs + AB. The CQDs demonstrated high selectivity and sensitivity to AB in concentrations between 1-100 μM with a detection limit of 0.142 nM (R2 = 0.991, Ka = 1.39194 × 10-3 M-1). Time-correlated single-photon counting (TCSPC) experiments validated the static quenching of CQDs (3.46 → 3.71 ns) when exposed to AB. The proposed detection method was successfully applied for detecting AB in human urine samples with a good recovery percentage (81 to 123 %; RSD ca. 1 %). After AB sensing, changes in the CQDs' crystalline nature, elemental composition, and chemical state were examined using XRD, XPS, and FTIR spectroscopy. Microscopy imaging techniques (FESEM, HRTEM, and AFM) confirmed morphological changes of CQDs from spherical to agglomerated with an average diameter of approximately 14 nm. Additionally, the impact of time, pH, and interferons on AB sensing was investigated. In vitro anti-inflammatory activity and in vivo bioimaging studies on zebrafish were also performed. This study highlights several advantages, including a cost-effective and eco-friendly approach for healthcare applications.

MicroRNAs as promising drug delivery target to ameliorate chronic obstructive pulmonary disease using nano-carriers: a comprehensive review

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a deteriorating condition triggered by various factors, such as smoking, free radicals, and air pollution. This worsening disease is characterized by narrowing and thickening of airways, painful cough, and dyspnea. In COPD, numerous genes as well as microRNA (miRNA) play a significant role in the pathogenesis of the disease. Many in vivo and in vitro studies suggest that upregulation or suppression of certain miRNAs are effective treatment options for COPD. They have been proven to be more beneficial than the current symptomatic treatments, such as bronchodilators and corticosteroids. MiRNAs play a crucial role in immune cell development and regulate inflammatory responses in various tissues. MiRNA treatment thus allows for precision therapy with improved outcomes. Nanoparticle drug delivery systems such as polymeric nanoparticles, inorganic nanoparticles, dendrimers, polymeric micelles, and liposomes are an efficient method to ensure the biodistribution of the miRNAs to the target site. Identification of the right nanoparticle depending on the requirements and compatibility is essential for achieving maximum therapeutic effect. In this review, we offer a thorough comprehension of the pathology and genetics of COPD and the significance of miRNAs concerning various pathologies of the lung, as potential targets for treating the disease. The present review offers the latest insights into the nanoparticle drug delivery systems that can efficiently carry and deliver miRNA or antagomirs to the specific target site and hence help in effective management of COPD.

Helicobacter pylori and gastric cancer: current insights and nanoparticle-based interventions

Background: H. pylori is recognized as one of the main causes of gastric cancer, and this type of cancer is considered as one of the leading diseases causing cancer deaths all over the world. Knowledge on the interactions between H. pylori and gastric carcinogenesis is important for designing preventive measures. Objective: the objective of this review is to summarize the available literature on H. pylori and gastric cancer, specifically regarding the molecular mechanisms, nanoparticle-based therapy and clinical developments. Methods: the databases including PubMed, Google Scholar and web of science were searched as well as papers from 2010 to 2024 were considered for review. Research literature on H. pylori, gastric cancer, nanoparticles, nanomedicine, and therapeutic interventions was summarized for current findings and possible treatments. Results: the presence of H. pylori in gastric mucosa causes chronic inflammation and several molecular alterations such as DNA alteration, epigenetic changes and activation of oncogenic signaling pathways which causes gastric carcinogenesis. Conventional antibiotic treatments have some issues because of the constantly rising levels of antibiotic resistance. Lipid based nanoformulations, polymeric and metallic nanoparticles have been delivered in treatment of H. pylori to improve drug delivery and alter immunological responses. Conclusion: nanoparticle based interventions have been widely explored as drug delivery systems by improving the treatment strategies against H. pylori induced gastric cancer. Further studies and clinical trials are required to bring these findings into a clinical setting in order to possibly alter the management of H. pylori related gastric malignancies.

Innovative approaches to asthma treatment: harnessing nanoparticle technology

In the domain of respiratory illnesses, asthma remains a critical obstacle. The heterogeneous nature of this chronic inflammatory disease poses challenges during its treatment. Glucocorticoid-based combination drug therapy now dominates clinical treatments for asthma; however, glucocorticoid resistance, numerous adverse effects, the incidence of inadequate drug delivery, and other factors need the development of more effective therapies. In recent years, there has been extensive research on nanotechnology in medicine. It has been shown in studies that these drug delivery systems can greatly enhance targeting and bioavailability and decrease the toxicity of medication. Nanoparticle drug delivery systems offer improved therapeutic efficacy compared to conventional administration techniques. Nanotechnology enables advancements in precision medicine, offering benefits for heterogeneous conditions such as asthma. This review will examine the critical factors of asthma to consider when formulating medications, as well as the role of nanomaterials and their mechanisms of action in pulmonary medicine for asthma treatment.

Dendrimer-mediated proton sponge effect in the treatment of pulmonary acidosis

The present study aimed to synthesize tiotropium bromide (TIO)-loaded generation 5 polyamidoamine dendrimers (TIO-PAMAM-G5-DMs) using a solvent-free microwave assisted synthesis (MAS) for the treatment of pulmonary acidosis, a condition associated with decreased blood pH due to bronchoconstriction. The encapsulation of TIO into PAMAM-G5-DMs was achieved using MAS Michael addition and amidation reactions, following green chemistry principles. The DMs demonstrated particle size of 460.68 ± 1.38 nm, entrapment efficiency of 92.4 ± 0.44%, controlled release profiles of 90.4 ± 0.62% and 76 ± 0.84% in media of pH 6.8 and 7.4, respectively, and high buffering capacity (25 mL/pH units) using a proton sponge effect for the release of the drug into the system as compared to the conventional formulation. A synergistic rat model was used to compare the pharmacokinetics (PK) of marketed and DM-based formulations. The results showed a mean Cmax of 1987 ng/mL, tmax of 6 h, AUC of 10013863.5 ng.h/mL, and t½ of 18.59 h, respectively. The DMs exhibited low cytotoxicity, good biocompatibility, and higher IC50 value (> 10 µg) on human lung epithelial cell line BEAS-2B. Thus, our study introduces a cutting-edge alternative approach for treating pulmonary acidosis using PAMAM-DMs with proton sponge effect.

Challenges and Opportunities in COPD Management in Latin America: A Review of Inhalation Therapies and Advanced Drug Delivery Systems

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide, particularly in low- and middle-income countries, where it poses a significant burden. In Latin America, the estimated prevalence of COPD is notably high, but the management and treatment of the disease have progressed slowly. This review examines the current status of inhalation therapy for COPD in Latin America, focusing on pharmacological therapies, inhalation devices, and the potential of advanced drug delivery systems. Pharmacological management predominantly relies on inhaled bronchodilators and corticosteroids, though access to these therapies varies considerably across the region. Inhalation devices, such as metered-dose inhalers (MDIs) and dry powder inhalers (DPIs), play a critical role in effective treatment delivery. However, their usage is often compromised by incorrect technique, low adherence, and limited availability, especially for DPIs. Emerging technologies, including nanoformulations, represent a promising frontier for the treatment of COPD by improving drug delivery and reducing side effects. However, significant barriers, such as high development costs and inadequate infrastructure, hinder their widespread adoption in the region. This review highlights the need for a multifaceted approach to enhance COPD management in Latin America, including optimizing access to existing inhalation therapies, strengthening healthcare infrastructure, improving provider training, and engaging patients in treatment decisions. Overcoming these challenges is crucial to improving COPD outcomes across the region.

Nanoparticle-Based Drug Delivery Systems in Inhaled Therapy: Improving Respiratory Medicine

Inhaled nanoparticle (NP) therapy poses intricate challenges in clinical and pharmacodynamic realms. Recent strides have revolutionized NP technology by enabling the incorporation of diverse molecules, thus circumventing systemic clearance mechanisms and enhancing drug effectiveness while mitigating systemic side effects. Despite the established success of systemic NP delivery in oncology and other disciplines, the exploration of inhaled NP therapies remains relatively nascent. NPs loaded with bronchodilators or anti-inflammatory agents exhibit promising potential for precise distribution throughout the bronchial tree, offering targeted treatment for respiratory diseases. This article conducts a comprehensive review of NP applications in respiratory medicine, highlighting their merits, ranging from heightened stability to exacting lung-specific delivery. It also explores cutting-edge technologies optimizing NP-loaded aerosol systems, complemented by insights gleaned from clinical trials. Furthermore, the review examines the current challenges and future prospects in NP-based therapies. By synthesizing current data and perspectives, the article underscores the transformative promise of NP-mediated drug delivery in addressing chronic conditions such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, a pressing global health concern ranked third in mortality rates. This overview illuminates the evolving landscape of NP inhalation therapies, presenting optimistic avenues for advancing respiratory medicine and improving patient outcomes.

Ferula latisecta gels for synthesis of zinc/silver binary nanoparticles: antibacterial effects against gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria and physicochemical characteristics

This study explores the potential antibacterial applications of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) enhanced with silver (Ag) using plant gel (ZnO-AgO NPs). The problem addressed is the increasing prevalence of pathogenic bacteria and the need for new, effective antimicrobial agents. ZnO NPs possess distinctive physicochemical properties that enable them to selectively target bacterial cells. Their small size and high surface area-to-volume ratio allow efficient cellular uptake and interaction with bacterial cells. In this study, the average size of the synthesized ZnO-Ag nanoparticles was 77.1 nm, with a significant standard deviation of 33.7 nm, indicating a wide size distribution. The nanoparticles demonstrated remarkable antibacterial efficacy against gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria, with inhibition zones of 14.33 mm for E. coli and 15.66 mm for B. subtilis at a concentration of 300 µg/ml. Minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) were determined to be 100 µg/ml for E. coli and 75 µg/ml for S. saprophyticus. Additionally, ZnO-Ag NPs exhibited excellent biocompatibility, making them appropriate for various pharmacological uses. This study utilizes Ferula latisecta gels, offering a sustainable and eco-friendly approach to nanoparticle synthesis. Incorporating of Ag into ZnO NPs significantly enhances their antimicrobial properties, with the combined results showing great inhibition effects on pathogenic microbes. The findings suggest that ZnO-Ag NPs could be a promising candidate for addressing the challenges posed by drug-resistant bacterial infections and enhancing antimicrobial treatments.

Optimization of Dendritic Polypeptide Delivery System for Antisense Antibacterial Agents Targeting ftsZ

There is an urgent requirement for a novel treatment strategy for drug-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) infection. Antisense antimicrobials are promising antimicrobials, and efficient drug delivery systems are necessary for the further development of antisense antimicrobials. To develop new antisense drugs and further improve delivery efficiency and safety, we designed and screened new antisense sequences and optimized dendritic polypeptide nanoparticles (DP-AD) discovered in previous studies. The N/P ratio is optimized from 8:1 to 6:1, and the positive charge number of the optimized DP-AD is studied comprehensively. The results show that the N/P ratio and positive charge number have no significant effect on the particle size distribution and transport efficiency of DP-AD. Reducing the N/P ratio can significantly reduce the cytotoxicity of DP-AD, but it does not affect its delivery efficiency and antibacterial activity. However, in drug-resistant strains, the antibacterial activity of DP-AD76:1 with 10 positive charges is higher than that of DP-AD86:1 with 8 positive charges. Our research discovered a novel ASOs targeting ftsZ and concluded that DP-AD76:1 with 10 positive charges was the optimal choice at the current stage, which provided a promising strategy for the treatment of drug-resistant S. aureus.

Pioglitazone Phases and Metabolic Effects in Nanoparticle-Treated Cells Analyzed via Rapid Visualization of FLIM Images

Fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM) has proven to be a useful method for analyzing various aspects of material science and biology, like the supramolecular organization of (slightly) fluorescent compounds or the metabolic activity in non-labeled cells; in particular, FLIM phasor analysis (phasor-FLIM) has the potential for an intuitive representation of complex fluorescence decays and therefore of the analyzed properties. Here we present and make available tools to fully exploit this potential, in particular by coding via hue, saturation, and intensity the phasor positions and their weights both in the phasor plot and in the microscope image. We apply these tools to analyze FLIM data acquired via two-photon microscopy to visualize: (i) different phases of the drug pioglitazone (PGZ) in solutions and/or crystals, (ii) the position in the phasor plot of non-labelled poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles (NPs), and (iii) the effect of PGZ or PGZ-containing NPs on the metabolism of insulinoma (INS-1 E) model cells. PGZ is recognized for its efficacy in addressing insulin resistance and hyperglycemia in type 2 diabetes mellitus, and polymeric nanoparticles offer versatile platforms for drug delivery due to their biocompatibility and controlled release kinetics. This study lays the foundation for a better understanding via phasor-FLIM of the organization and effects of drugs, in particular, PGZ, within NPs, aiming at better control of encapsulation and pharmacokinetics, and potentially at novel anti-diabetics theragnostic nanotools.

The effect of EGCG/tyrosol-loaded chitosan/lecithin nanoparticles on hyperglycemia and hepatic function in streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice

We aimed to study the potential of epigallocatechin-3-gallate/tyrosol-loaded chitosan/lecithin nanoparticles (EGCG/tyrosol-loaded C/L NPs) in streptozotocin-induced type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) mice. The EGCG/tyrosol-loaded C/L NPs were created using the self-assembly method. Dynamic light scattering, Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy were utilized to characterize the nanoparticle. Furthermore, in streptozotocin-induced T2DM mice, treatment with EGCG/tyrosol-loaded C/L NPs on fasting blood sugar levels, the expression of PCK1 and G6Pase, and IL-1β in the liver, liver glutathione content, nanoparticle toxicity on liver cells, and liver reactive oxygen species were measured. Our findings showed that EGCG/tyrosol-loaded C/L NPs had a uniform size distribution, and encapsulation efficiencies of 84 % and 89.1 % for tyrosol and EGCG, respectively. The nanoparticles inhibited PANC-1 cells without affecting normal HFF cells. Furthermore, EGCG/tyrosol-loaded C/L NP treatment reduced fasting blood sugar levels, elevated hepatic glutathione levels, enhanced liver cell viability, and decreased reactive oxygen species levels in diabetic mice. The expression of gluconeogenesis-related genes (PCK1 and G6 Pase) and the inflammatory gene IL-1β was downregulated by EGCG/tyrosol-loaded C/L NPs. In conclusion, the EGCG/tyrosol-loaded C/L NPs reduced hyperglycemia, oxidative stress, and inflammation in diabetic mice. These findings suggest that EGCG/tyrosol-loaded C/L NPs could be a promising therapeutic option for type 2 diabetes management.

Modulation of the Effect of Cisplatin on Nicotine-Stimulated A549 Lung Cancer Cells Using Analog of Marine Sponge Toxin Loaded in Gelatin Nanoparticles

Nicotine activates nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs), which are overexpressed in numerous cancer types, leading to signaling pathways that increase lung cancer invasiveness and resistance to chemotherapeutic agents. In this study, the effects of APS12-2, a synthetic analog of marine sponge toxin that acts as an antagonist of nAChRs, was investigated in vitro on A549 human lung adenocarcinoma cells and non-tumorigenic human lung epithelial BEAS-2B cells. In addition, gelatin nanoparticles (GNPs) loaded with APS12-2 (APS12-2-GNPs) were prepared and their effects were compared with those of free APS12-2. Nicotine reduced cytotoxicity, the formation of reactive oxygen species, and the formation of lipid droplets caused by cisplatin on A549 cells. The effects of nicotine on the decreased efficacy of cisplatin were reduced by APS12-2 and APS12-2-GNPs. APS12-2-GNPs showed a substantial advantage compared with free APS12-2; the cytotoxicity of APS12-2 on BEAS-2B cells was greatly reduced when APS12-2 was loaded in GNPs, whereas the cytotoxicity on A549 cells was only slightly reduced. Our results suggest that both APS12-2 and APS12-2-GNPs hold promise as supportive agents in the cisplatin-based chemotherapy of lung cancer.

Fabrication and characterization of gold nanoparticles using alginate: In vitro and in vivo assessment of its administration effects with swimming exercise on diabetic rats

Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) have unique features that might lead to the development of a new class of diabetic medicines. AuNPs were biosynthesized utilizing sodium-alginate. UV-Vis-spectroscopy, Fourier transforms infrared, field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), and energy dispersive X-ray were used to examine the particles. The potential of AuNPs for improving the diabetes condition was examined along with swimming in rats. FESEM image revealed the spherical morphology with an average particle size of 106.6 ± 20.8 nm. In the diabetic group, serum glucose, blood urea nitrogen (BUN), creatinine, cholesterol, and triglyceride (TG) levels were significantly higher than the control group. Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) was significantly higher and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) was significantly lower in the diabetic group compared to the control group. Malondialdehyde (MDA) levels were also significantly higher in the D group. However, in the groups treated with swimming and gold, these parameters were significantly improved. Specifically, serum-glucose, BUN, creatinine, cholesterol, and TG levels were significantly reduced, while LDL was significantly decreased in the diabetic + swimming + AuNPs group and HDL was significantly increased in the diabetic + AuNPs group. MDA levels were significantly decreased in the treated groups, and other antioxidants were significantly improved in the diabetic + swimming + AuNPs group. Catalase levels were also significantly improved in the D + gold group. It can be concluded that both AuNPs and swimming can decrease diabetic complications.

Antimicrobial and antibiofilm properties of selenium-chitosan-loaded salicylic acid nanoparticles for the removal of emerging contaminants from bacterial pathogens

In this study salicylic acid loaded containing selenium nanoparticles was synthesized and called SA@CS-Se NPs. the chitosan was used as a natural stabilizer during the synthesis process. Fourier transforms infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Powder X-ray diffraction (XRD), field emission electron microscopy (FESEM), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) were used to describe the physicochemical characteristics of the SA@CS-Se NPs. The PXRD examination revealed that the grain size was around 31.9 nm. TEM and FESEM techniques showed the spherical shape of SA@CS-Se NPs. Additionally, the analysis of experiments showed that SA@CS-Se NPs have antibacterial properties against 4 ATCC bacteria; So that with concentrations of 75, 125, 150, and 100 µg/ml, it inhibited the biofilm formation of Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus subtilis, and Staphylococcus aureus respectively. Also, at the concentration of 300 µg/ml, it removed 22.76, 23.2, 10.62, and 18.08% biofilm caused by E. coli, P. aeruginosa, B. subtilis, and S. aureus respectively. The synthesized SA@CS-Se NPs may find an application to reduce the unsafe influence of pathogenic microbes and, hence, eliminate microbial contamination.