Divide and Be Conquered-Cell Cycle Reactivation in Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Symbiosis

Annexin- and calcium-regulated priming of legume root cells for endosymbiotic infection

Legumes establish endosymbioses with arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi or rhizobia bacteria to improve mineral nutrition. Symbionts are hosted in privileged habitats, root cortex (for AM fungi) or nodules (for rhizobia) for efficient nutrient exchange. To reach these habitats, plants form cytoplasmic cell bridges, key to predicting and guiding fungal hyphae or rhizobia-filled infection thread (IT) root entry. However, the underlying mechanisms are poorly studied. Here we show that unique ultrastructural changes and calcium (Ca2+) spiking signatures, closely associated with Medicago truncatula Annexin 1 (MtAnn1) accumulation, accompany rhizobia-related bridge formation. Loss of MtAnn1 function in M. truncatula affects Ca2+ spike amplitude, cytoplasmic configuration and rhizobia infection efficiency, consistent with a role of MtAnn1 in regulating infection priming. MtAnn1, which evolved in species establishing intracellular symbioses, is also AM-symbiosis-induced and required for proper arbuscule formation. Together, we propose that MtAnn1 is part of an ancient Ca2+-regulatory module for transcellular endosymbiotic infection.

Characterization of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Effector Proteins

Plants are colonized by various fungi with both pathogenic and beneficial lifestyles. One type of colonization strategy is through the secretion of effector proteins that alter the plant's physiology to accommodate the fungus. The oldest plant symbionts, the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), may exploit effectors to their benefit. Genome analysis coupled with transcriptomic studies in different AMFs has intensified research on the effector function, evolution, and diversification of AMF. However, of the current 338 predicted effector proteins from the AM fungus Rhizophagus irregularis, only five have been characterized, of which merely two have been studied in detail to understand which plant proteins they associate with to affect the host physiology. Here, we review the most recent findings in AMF effector research and discuss the techniques used for the functional characterization of effector proteins, from their in silico prediction to their mode of action, with an emphasis on high-throughput approaches for the identification of plant targets of the effectors through which they manipulate their hosts.

Proteomics as a tool to decipher plant responses in arbuscular mycorrhizal interactions: a meta-analysis

The beneficial symbiosis between plants and arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi leads to a deep reprogramming of plant metabolism, involving the regulation of several molecular mechanisms, many of which are poorly characterized. In this regard, proteomics is a powerful tool to explore changes related to plant-microbe interactions. This study provides a comprehensive proteomic meta-analysis conducted on AM-modulated proteins at local (roots) and systemic (shoots/leaves) level. The analysis was implemented by an in-depth study of root membrane-associated proteins and by a comparison with a transcriptome meta-analysis. A total of 4262 differentially abundant proteins were retrieved and, to identify the most relevant AM-regulated processes, a range of bioinformatic studies were conducted, including functional enrichment and protein-protein interaction network analysis. In addition to several protein transporters which are present in higher amounts in AM plants, and which are expected due to the well-known enhancement of AM-induced mineral uptake, our analysis revealed some novel traits. We detected a massive systemic reprogramming of translation with a central role played by the ribosomal translational apparatus. On one hand, these new protein-synthesis efforts well support the root cellular re-organization required by the fungal penetration, and on the other they have a systemic impact on primary metabolism.

Root cell types as an interface for biotic interactions

Root responses to environmental stresses show a high level of cell type and developmental stage specificity. Interactions with beneficial and pathogenic organisms - including microbes and parasites - elicit a set of transcriptional responses unique to each root cell type, often dependent on their differentiation state. Localized changes to the cell wall and to the integrity of root cell types can serve as a physical barrier for a range of pests. Conversely, certain microorganisms weaken existing barriers within root cell types. Interactions with microorganisms vary between roots of different developmental origins and cellular architectures. Here we provide an overview of the molecular, architectural, and structural properties of root cell types crucial to both maintaining beneficial interactions and protecting from pathogens.