Modulation of executive attention by threat stimulus in test-anxious students

Characterizing the functioning of the attentional networks in state and trait anxiety: the role of affective information

Introduction

The aim of the present research was to examine the role of affective information in the functioning of attentional networks in individuals with high vs. low trait or state anxiety. Previous studies suggest that anxiety can influence attentional processes, but the impact of affective information, such as alerting emotional stimuli, on these attentional networks remains unclear.

Methods

We conducted a set of experiments using negative or neutral faces as alerting stimuli, presented either alone or together with a neutral sound, within a modified version of the Attention Network Test-Interactions (ANT-I). Additionally, data from previous experiments with similar anxiety groups and without affective manipulations of alertness were analyzed for comparative insights (378 participants in total).

Results

Results showed three main effects on the functioning of attentional networks when affective alerting signals were introduced: (1) the alertness effect is increased, (2) the interference effect is increased, and (3) the orienting effect is decreased. These effects occurred regardless of the valence of the alerting stimuli on a given trial. Importantly, the presence of affective information on some trials eliminated the group differences regarding the functioning of the attentional networks that are usually found when no affective information is presented. Specifically, the larger interference effect commonly observed in individuals with high trait-anxiety and the larger alertness and orienting effects seen in those with high state-anxiety, disappeared when emotional alerting stimuli were included.

Discussion

The findings suggest that emotional information can significantly impact the functioning of attentional networks, particularly in relation to anxiety. The presence of affective stimuli seems to modulate attentional biases associated with anxiety, potentially neutralizing the usual effects seen in individuals with high trait or state anxiety. The role of affective information on the functioning of the attentional networks is discussed within the framework of anxiety and attention.

EEG correlates of trait test anxiety in the flanker task for adolescents

Adolescents face constant exams and often experience severe test anxiety. Previous studies suggested that test anxiety impairs individuals' inhibitory control. Neurophysiological evidence suggests that anxiety interferes with the recruitment of the prefrontal region of the brain, which modulates top-down attentional control during the completion of inhibitory control tasks. However, there is little neurophysiological evidence regarding how test anxiety impairs inhibitory control in adolescents. This study used the flanker task to measure individuals' inhibitory control ability, and both event-related potential and electroencephalography indicators were used to measure neurophysiological processes. The results showed that increased trait test anxiety was significantly negatively correlated with theta power oscillation, while adolescents performed both incongruent and congruent trials. This finding suggests that trait test anxiety adolescents are less able to exert greater effort to complete the inhibitory control task and show impoverished top-down attentional control resources.

The impact of threat of shock-induced anxiety on alerting, orienting, and executive function in women: an ERP study

The present study used a combination of the Threat-of-Shock paradigm and the Attention Network Test (ANT) to investigate how induced anxiety affects alerting, orienting, and executive control and whether individual differences in threat sensitivity moderate these effects. Forty-two female subjects completed the ANT task in alternation under shock-threat and no-shock ("safe") conditions while event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded. The results showed that anxiety induced by the threat of shock had a significant impact on alerting and executive control functions at the neural level. Specifically, alerting-related N1 and stimulus-preceding negativity (SPN) differences between double cue and no cue conditions were greater in the threat versus safe state, suggesting that the induced anxiety promoted the early perception of cues and preparation for the target. Moreover, executive control-related P3 and sustained potential (SP) differences between incongruent and congruent trials were greater in the threat versus safe state, indicating that the induced anxiety might improve the attentional allocation efficiency and stimulate subjects to recruit more cognitive resources to resolve conflicts. However, orienting-related ERPs were not affected by the threat of shock, but the threat of shock promoted the processing efficiency of spatial-cue at the behavioral level. Analysis of individual differences revealed that trait anxiety moderated the attentional allocation efficiency when performing executive control related tasks in the threat versus safe state. Our findings demonstrate the adaptive significance of the threat of shock-induced anxiety in that being in an anxious state can enhance individuals' alerting, orienting, and executive functions.

EEG correlates of neutral working memory training induce attentional control improvements in test anxiety

Attentional control theory states that high test anxious (HTA) individuals suffer from impaired attentional control. However, through working memory training it may be possible to improve such individuals' attentional control ability. This study investigated whether 20 days of working memory training (with emotionally neutral stimuli) does result in improved HTA individuals' attentional control ability. Pre- and post-outcomes of attentional control were measured using Flanker and Go/Nogo experimental tasks in a test-related stress situation, and EEG data were also collected. Results only showed a significant decrease in Nogo alpha power in HTA individuals after neutral working memory training (i.e., post-outcome versus pre-outcome). However, we failed to provide evidence for beneficial transfer effects of neutral working memory training on enhanced task performance in both the Flanker and the Go/Nogo tasks. So, the present study demonstrates that neutral working memory training is clearly associated with important neurophysiological correlates while performing the Go/Nogo task, but the transfer effect is rather limited.

Test anxiety impairs inhibitory control processes in a performance evaluation threat situation: Evidence from ERP

Attentional Control Theory proposes that test anxiety impairs inhibitory control, and high test anxiety (HTA) individuals often allocate greater top-down attentional control resources to maintain comparable task performance compared to low test anxiety (LTA) individuals. This study examined how test anxiety impairs inhibitory control. Eighty participants were required to perform a hybrid Go/Nogo Flanker task in the performance evaluation threat or no performance evaluation threat conditions, while behavioral and EEG data were recorded. The ERP results showed that HTA participants revealed significantly larger Nogo but not incongruent related N2 amplitude than LTA participants in the threat condition. In the threat condition, HTA individuals were associated with increased recruitment of top-down attentional control resources to perform the response inhibition task but not the interference suppression task.

Effect of test anxiety on visual working memory capacity using evidence from event-related potentials

This study examined the effects of test anxiety on working memory capacity. Studies have demonstrated that individuals with trait social anxiety disorder exhibit increased visual working memory capacity and that those with trait anxiety exhibit decreased working memory capacity. Test anxiety may also induce unique effects on individuals' working memory capacity, and we thus employed the change detection task to explore such effects. Participants were divided into high- and low-test anxiety groups. We used K score and contralateral delay activity (CDA) amplitude to measure working memory capacity, focusing on processing effectiveness and efficiency. The study results revealed that deficits in the working memory capacity of individuals in the high test anxiety group manifested in the CDA amplitude rather than in the K score. The CDA amplitude of the high test anxiety group did not increase after load 3, and that of the low test anxiety group did not increase after load 4. No difference was observed in the K scores of the two groups. The study concluded that test anxiety impairs processing efficiency but not processing effectiveness.

Test anxiety impairs filtering ability in visual working memory: Evidence from event-related potentials

Attentional control theory regards individuals with high anxiety as having deficits of inhibitory control when faced with distractors, especially under high-load conditions and with threatening distractors. Research on test anxiety has a long history, but the working memory (WM) characteristics of individuals with high test anxiety (HTA) remain unclear. We used two experiments to test the WM filtering ability of individuals with HTA, and the salient results were those of the contralateral delay activity amplitude rather than K score. The first experiment employed neutral distractors. HTA participants filtered distractors under low-load conditions but not under high-load conditions. Participants with low test anxiety (LTA) filtered distractors under high-load conditions but not under low-load conditions. The second experiment utilized threatening distractors. The participants with HTA exhibited deficits in their ability to filter neutral and threatening distractors, whereas the participants with LTA filtered both types of distractor.

The Attention Network Test Database: ADHD and Cross-Cultural Applications

Attention is a central component of cognitive and behavioral processes and plays a key role in basic and higher-level functioning. Posner's model of attention describes three components or networks of attention: the alerting, which involves high intensity states of arousal; the orienting, which involves the selective direction of attention; and the executive control, which involves cognitive functions such as conflict resolution and working memory. The Attention Network Test (ANT) is a computerized testing measure that was developed to measure these three networks of attention. This project describes the ANT, its widely used variants, and the recently developed ANT Database, a repository of data extracted from all studies that have used the ANT as of 2019. To illustrate the potential uses of the database, two meta-analyses conducted using the ANT Database are described. One explores task performance in children with and without attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The other one explores regional differences between studies conducted in China, Europe, and the United States. We are currently in the process of integrating the database into a publicly available web interface. When that work is complete, researchers, clinicians, and the general public will be able to use the database to explore topics of interest related to attention.