The Direct Testing Effect Is Pervasive in Action Memory: Analyses of Recall Accuracy and Recall Speed

An event-related potential study of the testing effect: Electrophysiological evidence for context-dependent processes changing throughout repeated practice

The testing effect refers to a special form of performance improvement following practice. Specifically, repeated retrieval attempts improve long-term memory. In the present study we examined the underlying mechanisms of the testing effect as a function of time by investigating the electrophysiological correlates of repeated retrieval practice. We additionally investigated the ERP waveforms of the repeated practice phase as a function of the accuracy on the final test in a "difference due to memory" (Dm) analysis. We found a parietally distributed, increased positive amplitude between 500-700 ms, and a more positive parietal wave between 700 and 1000 ms in the later relative to the early phases of retrieval practice. We found parietal Dm effects in the same two time windows in the retrieval practice condition with a more positive amplitude predicting retrieval success on the final test. We interpret the earlier waveform as a component associated with episodic recollection and the later ERP as a component related to post-retrieval evaluation processes. Our results demonstrate the important role of these retrieval-related processes in the facilitating effect of retrieval practice on later retrieval, and show that the involvement of these processes changes throughout practice.

Online Quizzes with Closed Questions in Formal Assessment: How Elaborate Feedback can Promote Learning

Online-quizzes are an economic and objective method for formative assessment in universities. However, closed questions have been criticized for promoting shallow learning and resulting often in poor learning outcomes. These disadvantages can be overcome by embedding closed questions in effective instructional designs involving feedback. In the present field study, a final sample of N = 496 students completed the same online quiz, consisting of 60 true–false statements on the biological bases of psychology in two sessions. In order to enhance the benefit of formative testing on students’ test achievement in Session 2, students received elaborate feedback (i.e., by providing explanations for the in-/correctness) for half of their answers in Session 1, and corrective feedback (i.e., just indicating the in-/correctness) for the other half. The results showed that students scored higher in Session 2 if elaborate feedback had been provided in Session 1, compared with when corrective feedback was provided. More specifically, students profited more from elaborate feedback on incorrect answers in Session 1 than from feedback on correct answers. As a practical recommendation, self-administered formative tests with closed-question format should at least provide explanations why students’ answers are incorrect.