Self-Generation in the Context of Inquiry-Based Learning

Youth Perspectives on the Effects of a Family-centered Media Literacy Intervention to Encourage Healthier Eating

A pretest-posttest field test with control group (N = 189 parent-child dyads) tested a structural model representing youths' (ages 9-14) perspectives to examine the efficacy of a family-centered, media literacy-oriented intervention promoting fruit and vegetable consumption. The intervention facilitated critical discussion about nutrition and media, mentored by the parent. Results showed that youths' increases in fruit and vegetable consumption flowed from parent-child discussion of nutrition labels, which was predicted by child-initiated discussion, critical thinking about media sources, and critical thinking about media content. Multivariate analyses revealed that the intervention was productive for all participating age groups and for all dependent variables. The results suggest that a developmental progression from critical thinking about source to critical thinking about content affects behavior change and can be catalyzed through media literacy education and encouragement to discuss media messages (i.e. practice) with parents.

Association of learning environment and self-directed learning ability among nursing undergraduates: a cross-sectional study using canonical correlation analysis

OBJECTIVES

This study explores the relationship between the perception of the learning environment and self-directed learning (SDL) ability among nursing undergraduates.

DESIGN, SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS

A cross-sectional study was conducted in December 2020 with 1096 junior and senior undergraduate nursing students (aged 16-22) from Wannan Medical College in Anhui Province, China.

OUTCOME MEASURES

The Chinese version of the Dundee Ready Educational Environment Measure questionnaire and a validated Chinese version of college students' SDL ability scale were used to assess students' perceptions about their learning environment and their SDL ability. Canonical correlation analysis was performed to evaluate their correlation.

RESULTS

The total score for the learning environment was 120.60 (scoring rate: 60.30%), and the score for SDL ability was 89.25 (scoring rate: 63.75%). Analysis indicated that the first canonical correlation coefficient was 0.701 and the contribution rate was 94.26%. The perception of the learning environment was mainly determined by students' perception of learning (SPL) and academic self-perceptions (SASP), with SDL ability mainly determined by self-management ability and cooperative learning ability. SPL and SASP were positively correlated with self-management ability and cooperative learning ability. Multiple linear regression analysis revealed that SPL, SASP, students' perceptions of atmosphere and students' social self-perceptions had a significant impact on SDL ability.

CONCLUSIONS

The SDL ability of nursing undergraduates was not high. SPL and SASP were positively correlated with self-management ability and cooperative learning ability. Nursing educators can improve students' SDL ability by changing their learning environment, using, for example, new student-centred teaching methods.

Computer-assisted instruction versus inquiry-based learning: The importance of working memory capacity

The Covid-19 pandemic has led millions of students worldwide to intensify their use of digital education. This massive change is not reflected by the scant scientific research on the effectiveness of methods relying on digital learning compared to other innovative and more popular methods involving face-to-face interactions. Here, we tested the effectiveness of computer-assisted instruction (CAI) in Science and Technology compared to inquiry-based learning (IBL), another modern method which, however, requires students to interact with each other in the classroom. Our research also considered socio-cognitive factors-working memory (WM), socioeconomic status (SES), and academic self-concept (ASC)-known to predict academic performance but usually ignored in research on IBL and CAI. Five hundred and nine middle-school students, a fairly high sample size compared with relevant studies, received either IBL or CAI for a period varying from four to ten weeks prior to the Covid-19 events. After controlling for students' prior knowledge and socio-cognitive factors, multilevel modelling showed that CAI was more effective than IBL. Although CAI-related benefits were stable across students' SES and ASC, they were particularly pronounced for those with higher WM capacity. While indicating the need to adapt CAI for students with poorer WM, these findings further justify the use of CAI both in normal times (without excluding other methods) and during pandemic episodes.

Validation of Cognitive Load During Inquiry-Based Learning With Multimedia Scaffolds Using Subjective Measurement and Eye Movements

Subject-method barriers and cognitive load (CL) of students have a particular importance in the complex learning process of scientific inquiry. In this work, we investigate the valid measurement of CL as well as different scaffolds to reduce it during experimentation. Specifically, we examine the validity of a subjective measurement instrument to assess CL [in extraneous cognitive load (ECL), intrinsic cognitive load, and germane cognitive load (GCL)] during the use of multimedia scaffolds in the planning phase of the scientific inquiry process based on a theoretical framework of the CL theory. The validity is analyzed by investigating possible relationships between causal (e.g., cognitive abilities) and assessment (e.g., eye-tracking metrics) factors in relation to the obtained test scores of the adapted subjective measurement instrument. The study aims to elucidate possible relationships of causal factors that have not yet been adequately investigated in relation to CL. Furthermore, a possible, still inconclusive convergence between subjective test scores on CL and objectively measured indicators will be tested using different eye-tracking metrics. In two studies (n=250), 9th and 11th grade students experimentally investigated a biological phenomenon. At the beginning of the planning phase, students selected one of four multimedia scaffolds using a tablet (Study I: n=181) or a computer with a stationary eye-tracking device (Study II: n=69). The subjective cognitive load was measured via self-reports using a standardized questionnaire. Additionally, we recorded students’ gaze data during learning with the scaffolds as objective measurements. Besides the causal factors of cognitive-visual and verbal abilities, reading skills and spatial abilities were quantified using established test instruments and the learners indicated their representation preference by selecting the scaffolds. The results show that CL decreases substantially with higher grade level. Regarding the causal factors, we observed that cognitive-visual and verbal abilities have a significant influence on the ECL and GCL in contrast to reading skills. Additionally, there is a correlation between the representation preference and different types of CL. Concerning the objective measurement data, we found that the absolute fixation number is predictive for the ECL. The results are discussed in the context of the overall methodological research goal and the theoretical framework of CL.

Learning With a Double-Edged Sword? Beneficial and Detrimental Effects of Learning Tests-Taking a First Look at Linkages Among Tests, Later Learning Outcomes, Stress Perceptions, and Intelligence

It has often been shown that tests as intentionally hindered and difficult learning tasks increase long-term learning compared to easier tasks. Previous work additionally indicated that higher intelligence might serve as a prerequisite for such beneficial effects of tests. Nevertheless, despite their long-term learning effects, tests were also found to be evaluated as more negative and to lead to more stress and anxiety compared to easier control tasks. Stress and anxiety, in turn, often yield detrimental effects on learning outcomes. Hence, we hypothesized that tests increase later learning outcomes but simultaneously also lead to more stress perceptions. Such increased stress was, in turn, hypothesized to reduce later learning outcomes (thus, stress might serve as a mediator of the beneficial effects of tests on learning). All these assumed effects should further be moderated by intelligence, insofar as that higher intelligence should increase beneficial effects of tests on learning, should decrease stress perceptions caused by tests, and should reduce detrimental effects of stress on learning outcomes. Higher intelligence was also assumed to be generally associated with higher learning. We conducted a laboratory study (N=89) to test these hypotheses: Participants underwent an intelligence screening, then worked on either a test or a re-reading control task, and reported their immediate stress perceptions. Later learning outcomes were assessed after 1week. The results supported all assumed main effects but none of the assumed interactions. Thus, participants using tests had higher long-term learning outcomes compared to participants using re-reading tasks. However, participants using tests also perceived more immediate stress compared to participants that only re-read the materials. These stress perceptions in turn diminished the beneficial effects of tests. Stress was also generally related to lower learning, whereas higher intelligence was linked to higher learning and also to lower stress. Hence, our findings again support the often assumed benefits of tests-even when simultaneously considering learners' intelligence and and when considering the by tests caused stress perceptions. Notably, controlling for stress further increases these long-term learning benefits. We then discuss some limitations and boundaries of our work as well as ideas for future studies.

Tests and academic cheating: do learning tasks influence cheating by way of negative evaluations?

Desirable difficulties like tests were often shown to increase long-term learning. However, due to the complexity and difficulty of such tasks, they are also argued to result in negative consequences like stress, anxiety, pressure, frustration, or negative evaluations. In other studies, such consequences were, in turn, often found to increase dishonest behaviour. Hence, the present work tests the assumptions that tests as difficult learning tasks, contrary to reading, lead to more negative evaluations of the learning situations, to more stress, and—directly and indirectly—to higher self-reported likelihoods of hypothetical cheating and to higher justifications for cheating. Thus, the learning situation itself, as well as negative consequences caused by the learning situation, is supposed to be linked to cheating. We conducted an online study in which participants read and imagined one of three hypothetical learning scenarios, either regarding one of two learning tests or a reading control task. Participants then rated negative consequences due to these scenarios, as well as likelihoods of cheating, and justifications for it, in a hypothetical examination. Our results showed no direct effects of the learning scenarios on likelihoods of hypothetical cheating or justifications. However, test scenarios were evaluated more negatively than the reading control scenario and these higher negative evaluations were in turn linked to higher likelihoods of own hypothetical cheating and to higher justifications. These findings indicate that tests as difficult learning tasks can indirectly influence cheating, at least in hypothetical scenarios. Future work should try to replicate and expand these results.

Effect of constant versus variable small-group facilitators on students' basic science knowledge in an enquiry-based dental curriculum

INTRODUCTION

The role of small-group facilitators is of pivotal importance for the success of curricula based on active learning. Disorganised tutorial processes and superficial study of the problem have been identified as main hindering factors for students' learning. The aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of consistency of facilitation on students' performance in knowledge-based basic science assessments in a hybrid, enquiry-based (EBL) undergraduate dental curriculum.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This was a retrospective study of 519 first- and second-year undergraduate dental students, enrolled at Peninsula Dental School between 2013 and 2018. Twice in each academic year, students sat a 60-item single-best-answer, multiple-choice examination. Percentage and Z-scores were compared between students whose EBL groups had the same facilitator throughout the academic year, and those whose EBL group was facilitated by different members of staff. All EBL facilitators were dentally qualified but with different levels of expertise in basic dental sciences, prior EBL facilitation, involvement in the curriculum design and university affiliation.

RESULTS

No statistically significant difference was observed in the percentage or Z-scores of students whose EBL sessions were supported by consistent or variable facilitators in any of the 18 MCQ tests. Z-scores of first-year students were more variable than for second-year students. In addition, pairwise comparisons revealed no statistically significant differences in students' Z-scores between any of the permanent facilitators' groups.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of our study may influence the design and delivery of enquiry-based curricula as well as human resources management by shifting the focus from maintaining facilitator consistency to ensuring comparable training and approaches across facilitators.

I Know I Can, but Do I Have the Time? The Role of Teachers' Self-Efficacy and Perceived Time Constraints in Implementing Cognitive-Activation Strategies in Science

Considerable research has demonstrated that teachers' self-efficacy plays a major role in implementing instructional practices. Only few studies, however, have examined the interplay between how teachers' self-efficacy and the challenges that lie outside their influence are related to their implementation of cognitive-activation strategies (CASs), especially in science classrooms. Using the Trends in Mathematics and Science Study 2015 data from science teachers in Grades 4, 5, 8, and 9, we explored the extent to which teachers' self-efficacy in science teaching and the perceived time constraints explained variations in the enactment of general and inquiry-based CAS. Findings from the overall sample showed that highly self-efficacious teachers reported more frequent implementation of both general and inquiry-based CAS, whereas those who perceived strong time constraints reported a less frequent use of inquiry-based CAS. These relationships also existed across grade levels, except on the relations between perceived time constraint and inquiry-based CAS, which was only significant for the science teachers in Grade 9. We discuss these findings in light of variations in the core competencies of science curriculum, teachers' competences, and the resources for science activities between primary and secondary education. We also point to the theoretical implications of this study for enhancing the conceptual understanding of generic and specific aspects of CAS and the practical implications for teacher education, professional development, and educational policy.