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Higgins WC, Savalei V, Polito V, Ross RM. Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test Scores Demonstrate Poor Structural Properties in Nine Large Non-Clinical Samples. Assessment 2025:10731911251328604. [PMID: 40156442 DOI: 10.1177/10731911251328604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/01/2025]
Abstract
The Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (RMET) is widely used in clinical and non-clinical research. However, the structural properties of RMET scores have yet to be rigorously examined. We analyzed the structural properties of RMET scores in nine existing datasets comprising non-clinical samples ranging from 558 to 9,267 (median = 1,112) participants each. We used confirmatory factor analysis to assess two theoretically derived factor models, exploratory factor analysis to identify possible alternative factor models, and reliability estimates to assess internal consistency. Neither of the theoretically derived models was a good fit for any of the nine datasets, and we were unable to identify any better fitting multidimensional models. Internal consistency metrics were acceptable in six of the nine datasets, but these metrics are difficult to interpret given the uncertain factor structures. Our findings contribute to a growing body of evidence questioning the reliability and validity of RMET scores.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wendy C Higgins
- Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- University of Melbourne, VIC, Australia
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Mastilo B, Đorđević M, Glumbić N, Memisevic H, Golubović Š. Predictors of the Friendship Quality in Adults With Mild Intellectual Disability. JOURNAL OF APPLIED RESEARCH IN INTELLECTUAL DISABILITIES 2025; 38:e70041. [PMID: 40103409 DOI: 10.1111/jar.70041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2024] [Revised: 02/25/2025] [Accepted: 03/11/2025] [Indexed: 03/20/2025]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Friendship quality is crucial for psychological well-being, yet is often lower in persons with intellectual disabilities compared to their peers. This study explores the predictors of friendship quality among adults with mild intellectual disability, focusing on age, gender, living setting, psychiatric traits, and social cognition. METHOD The sample comprised 62 adults with mild intellectual disability (32 males, 30 females; ages 19-53), and 30 with significant psychiatric traits. Tools included the Friendship Quality Scale, Edinburgh Social Cognition Test, MINI PAS-ADD scale, and a demographic questionnaire. RESULTS Social cognition and age were the strongest predictors of friendship quality, with higher social cognition scores and younger age correlating with better quality. Gender, living setting, and psychiatric traits had less impact. CONCLUSIONS Social cognition and age are primary determinants of friendship quality in adults with mild intellectual disability, suggesting that interventions to enhance social cognition may benefit this population's social well-being.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bojana Mastilo
- Faculty of Medicine, University of East Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
| | - Mirjana Đorđević
- Faculty for Special Education and Rehabilitation, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Nenad Glumbić
- Faculty for Special Education and Rehabilitation, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Haris Memisevic
- Faculty of Educational Sciences, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
| | - Špela Golubović
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia
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Higgins WC, Kaplan DM, Deschrijver E, Ross RM. Construct validity evidence reporting practices for the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test: A systematic scoping review. Clin Psychol Rev 2024; 108:102378. [PMID: 38232573 DOI: 10.1016/j.cpr.2023.102378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2023] [Revised: 11/20/2023] [Accepted: 12/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/19/2024]
Abstract
The Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (RMET) is one of the most influential measures of social cognitive ability, and it has been used extensively in clinical populations. However, questions have been raised about the validity of RMET scores. We conducted a systematic scoping review of the validity evidence reported in studies that administered the RMET (n = 1461; of which 804 included at least one clinical sample) with a focus on six key dimensions: internal consistency, test-retest reliability, factor structure, convergent validity, discriminant validity, and known group validity. Strikingly, 63% of these studies failed to provide validity evidence from any of these six categories. Moreover, when evidence was reported, it frequently failed to meet widely accepted validity standards. Overall, our results suggest a troubling conclusion: the validity of RMET scores (and the research findings based on them) are largely unsubstantiated and uninterpretable. More broadly, this project demonstrates how unaddressed measurement issues can undermine a voluminous psychological literature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wendy C Higgins
- Macquarie University, School of Psychological Sciences, NSW 2109, Australia.
| | - David M Kaplan
- Macquarie University, School of Psychological Sciences, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - Eliane Deschrijver
- Macquarie University, School of Psychological Sciences, NSW 2109, Australia; University of Sydney, School of Psychology, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Robert M Ross
- Macquarie University, Department of Philosophy, NSW 2109, Australia
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Burke T, Holleran L, Mothersill D, Lyons J, O'Rourke N, Gleeson C, Cannon DM, McKernan DP, Morris DW, Kelly JP, Hallahan B, McDonald C, Donohoe G. Bilateral anterior corona radiata microstructure organisation relates to impaired social cognition in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2023; 262:87-94. [PMID: 37931564 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2023.10.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2023] [Revised: 09/25/2023] [Accepted: 10/28/2023] [Indexed: 11/08/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The Corona Radiata (CR) is a large white matter tract in the brain comprising of the anterior CR (aCR), superior CR (sCR), and posterior CR (pCR), which have associations with cognition, self-regulation, and, in schizophrenia, positive symptom severity. This study tested the hypothesis that the microstructural organisation of the aCR, as measured by Fractional Anisotropy (FA) using Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI), would relate to poorer social cognitive outcomes and higher positive symptom severity for people with schizophrenia, when compared to healthy participants. We further hypothesised that increased positive symptoms would relate to poorer social cognitive outcomes. METHODS Data were derived from n = 178 healthy participants (41 % females; 36.11 ± 12.36 years) and 58 people with schizophrenia (30 % females; 42.4 ± 11.1 years). The Positive and Negative Symptom Severity Scale measured clinical symptom severity. Social Cognition was measured using the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (RMET) Total Score, as well as the Positive, Neutral, and Negative stimuli valence. The ENIGMA-DTI protocol tract-based spatial statistics (TBSS) was used. RESULTS There was a significant difference in FA for the CR, in individuals with schizophrenia compared to healthy participants. On stratification, both the aCR and pCR were significantly different between groups, with patients showing reduced white matter tract microstructural organisation. Significant negative correlations were observed between positive symptomatology and reduced microstructural organisation of the aCR. Performance for RMET negative valence items was significantly correlated bilaterally with the aCR, but not the sCR or pCR, and no relationship to positive symptoms was observed. CONCLUSIONS These data highlight specific and significant microstructural white-matter differences for people with schizophrenia, which relates to positive clinical symptomology and poorer performance on social cognition stimuli. While reduced FA is associated with higher positive symptomatology in schizophrenia, this study shows the specific associated with anterior frontal white matter tracts and reduced social cognitive performance. The aCR may have a specific role to play in frontal-disconnection syndromes, psychosis, and social cognitive profile within schizophrenia, though further research requires more sensitive, specific, and detailed consideration of social cognition outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom Burke
- School of Psychology, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland; Center for Neuroimaging Cognition and Genomics, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland
| | - Laurena Holleran
- School of Psychology, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland; Center for Neuroimaging Cognition and Genomics, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland
| | - David Mothersill
- School of Psychology, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland; Center for Neuroimaging Cognition and Genomics, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland; Psychology Department, School of Business, National College of, Ireland
| | - James Lyons
- School of Psychology, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland; Center for Neuroimaging Cognition and Genomics, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland
| | - Nathan O'Rourke
- School of Psychology, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland; Center for Neuroimaging Cognition and Genomics, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland
| | - Christina Gleeson
- School of Psychology, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland; Center for Neuroimaging Cognition and Genomics, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland
| | - Dara M Cannon
- Center for Neuroimaging Cognition and Genomics, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland; Clinical Neuroimaging Laboratory, Galway Neuroscience Centre, College of Medicine Nursing and Health Sciences, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland
| | - Declan P McKernan
- Pharmacology & Therapeutics and Galway Neuroscience Centre, National University of Ireland Galway, H91 W5P7 Galway, Ireland
| | - Derek W Morris
- Center for Neuroimaging Cognition and Genomics, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland
| | - John P Kelly
- Pharmacology & Therapeutics and Galway Neuroscience Centre, National University of Ireland Galway, H91 W5P7 Galway, Ireland
| | - Brian Hallahan
- Center for Neuroimaging Cognition and Genomics, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland; Department of Psychiatry, Clinical Science Institute, National University of Ireland Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland
| | - Colm McDonald
- Center for Neuroimaging Cognition and Genomics, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland; Department of Psychiatry, Clinical Science Institute, National University of Ireland Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland
| | - Gary Donohoe
- School of Psychology, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland; Center for Neuroimaging Cognition and Genomics, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland.
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Stafford O, Gleeson C, Egan C, Tunney C, Rooney B, O’Keeffe F, McDermott G, Baron-Cohen S, Burke T. A 20-Year Systematic Review of the 'Reading the Mind in the Eyes' Test across Neurodegenerative Conditions. Brain Sci 2023; 13:1268. [PMID: 37759869 PMCID: PMC10526136 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci13091268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2023] [Revised: 08/28/2023] [Accepted: 08/28/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Social cognition has a broad theoretical definition, which includes the ability to mentalise, i.e., recognise and infer mental states to explain and predict another's behaviour. There is growing recognition of the clinical, diagnostic, and prognostic value of assessing a person's ability to perform social cognitive tasks, particularly aspects of theory of mind, such as mentalising. One such measure of mentalising is the 'Reading the Mind in the Eyes' test (RMET). This systematic review and meta-analysis consider performance on the RMET, applied to people with neurodegenerative conditions in matched control studies, since its publication in 2001. Overall, this review includes 22 papers with data from N = 800 participants with neurodegenerative conditions: Alzheimer's disease, n = 31; Parkinson's disease, n = 221; Lewy body dementia, n = 33; motor neuron disease, n = 218; Huntington's disease n = 80; multiple sclerosis, n = 217; and N = 601 matched typical controls. Our meta-analyses show that deficits in mentalising, as measured by the RMET, are consistently reported across neurodegenerative conditions, with participants in both early and late disease stages being affected. Social cognition is an emerging field of cognitive neuroscience requiring specific and sensitive measurement across each subdomain. Adult-based meta-normative data feature, for which future groups or individuals could be compared against, and hypotheses relating to the source of these mentalising deficits are further discussed. This review was registered with PROSPERO (CRD42020182874).
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Affiliation(s)
- Owen Stafford
- School of Psychology, University College Dublin, D04 F6X4 Dublin, Ireland
| | - Christina Gleeson
- School of Psychology, University of Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland
| | - Ciara Egan
- School of Psychology, University of Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland
| | - Conall Tunney
- Acquired Brain Injury Ireland, Meath Services, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Brendan Rooney
- School of Psychology, University College Dublin, D04 F6X4 Dublin, Ireland
| | - Fiadhnait O’Keeffe
- School of Psychology, University College Dublin, D04 F6X4 Dublin, Ireland
- St Vincent’s University Hospital, D04 T6F4 Dublin, Ireland
| | - Garret McDermott
- Department of Psychology, Tallaght University Hospital, D24 NR0A Dublin, Ireland
| | - Simon Baron-Cohen
- Autism Research Centre, Department of Psychiatry, Cambridge University, Cambridge CB2 8AH, UK
| | - Tom Burke
- School of Psychology, University College Dublin, D04 F6X4 Dublin, Ireland
- School of Psychology, University of Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland
- Centre for Neuroimaging, Cognition, and Genomics,University of Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland
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Song Z, Jones A, Corcoran R, Daly N, Abu-Akel A, Gillespie SM. Psychopathic Traits and Theory of Mind Task Performance: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2023; 151:105231. [PMID: 37172923 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2023] [Revised: 04/24/2023] [Accepted: 05/09/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
This meta-analysis aims to examine the relationship between psychopathic traits and theory of mind (ToM), which is classically and broadly defined as competency in representing and attributing mental states such as emotions, intentions, and beliefs to others. Our search strategy gathered 142 effect sizes, from 42 studies, with a total sample size of 7463 participants. Random effects models were used to analyze the data. Our findings suggested that psychopathic traits are associated with impaired ToM task performance. This relationship was not moderated by age, population, psychopathy measurement (self-report versus clinical checklist) or conceptualization, or ToM task type (cognitive versus affective). The effect also remained significant after excluding tasks that did not require the participant to 1) mentalize or 2) differentiate self and other perspectives. However, interpersonal/affective traits were associated with a more pronounced impairment in ToM task performance compared to lifestyle/antisocial traits. Future research should investigate the effects of distinct psychopathy facets that will allow for a more precise understanding of the social-cognitive bases of relevant clinical presentations in psychopathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhaorong Song
- Department of Primary Care and Mental Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom.
| | - Andrew Jones
- Department of Psychology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom.
| | - Rhiannon Corcoran
- Department of Primary Care and Mental Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom.
| | - Natasha Daly
- Department of Primary Care and Mental Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom.
| | - Ahmad Abu-Akel
- Institute of Psychology, University of Lausanne, 1015, Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Steven M Gillespie
- Department of Primary Care and Mental Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom.
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Kelly Grealy M, Godfrey E, Brady F, Whyte O’Sullivan E, Carroll GA, Burke T. Borderline personality disorder traits and mentalising ability: The self-other social cognition paradox. Front Psychiatry 2022; 13:1023348. [PMID: 36339858 PMCID: PMC9631768 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1023348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2022] [Accepted: 10/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is a psychiatric condition characterised by a pervasive pattern of impulsivity, low self-image, and interpersonal conflicts. Previous findings indicate a mixed relationship between BPD and social cognition; little research as investigated whether BPD traits influence performance on specific elements of social cognitive tasks, i.e., positive/negative valence. Method Community-based typical controls (n = 151; 51% female) were recruited through an online survey. Participants completed aspects of the Personality Assessment Inventory pertaining to BPD traits, the Interpersonal Reactivity Index, and measures of both emotion recognition and mentalising. Results Following group stratification into high/low BPD traits, participants with high BPD traits were observed to perform significantly better when identifying negative valence stimuli. Furthermore, high levels of affect instability was found to significantly influence negative valence recognition. Conclusion This research highlights previous research which shows a paradox between higher performance on measures of social cognition, with a group of individuals who report significant interpersonal and relational difficulties. This research supports the assessment of social cognitive processes for people with BPD and/or high BPD traits to support clinical formulation of strengths and difficulties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Molly Kelly Grealy
- School of Psychology, National University of Ireland Galway, Galway, Ireland
| | - Emmet Godfrey
- School of Psychology, National University of Ireland Galway, Galway, Ireland
| | - Finn Brady
- School of Psychology, National University of Ireland Galway, Galway, Ireland
| | | | - Grace A. Carroll
- School of Psychology, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, United Kingdom
| | - Tom Burke
- School of Psychology, National University of Ireland Galway, Galway, Ireland
- Galway Neuroscience Centre, National University of Ireland Galway, Galway, Ireland
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Corpus Callosum Microstructural Tract Integrity Relates to Longer Emotion Recognition Reaction Time in People with Schizophrenia. Brain Sci 2022; 12:brainsci12091208. [PMID: 36138944 PMCID: PMC9496923 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci12091208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2022] [Revised: 08/30/2022] [Accepted: 09/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective: Schizophrenia is a complex functionally debilitating neurodevelopmental disorder, with associated social cognitive impairment. Corpus Callosum (CC) white matter tracts deficits are reported for people with schizophrenia; however, few studies focus on interhemispheric processing relative to social cognition tasks. This study aimed to determine if a relationship between the CC and social cognition exists. Method: In this cross-section study, a sample of n = 178 typical controls and n = 58 people with schizophrenia completed measures of mentalising (Reading the Mind in the Eyes), emotion recognition outcome and reaction time (Emotion Recognition Test), and clinical symptoms (Positive and Negative Symptom Scale), alongside diffusion-based tract imaging. The CC and its subregions, i.e., the genu, body, and splenium were the regions of interest (ROI). Results: Reduced white matter tract integrity was observed in the CC for patients when compared to controls. Patients performed slower, and less accurately on emotion recognition tasks, which significantly and negatively correlated to the structural integrity of the CC genu. Tract integrity further significantly and negatively related to clinical symptomatology. Conclusions: People with schizophrenia have altered white matter integrity in the genu of the CC, compared to controls, which relates to cognitive deficits associated with recognising emotional stimuli accurately and quickly, and severity of clinical symptoms.
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Pavlova MA, Sokolov AA. Reading language of the eyes. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2022; 140:104755. [PMID: 35760388 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2022] [Revised: 05/20/2022] [Accepted: 06/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The need for assessment of social skills in clinical and neurotypical populations has led to the widespread, and still increasing use of the 'Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test' (RMET) developed more than two decades ago by Simon Baron-Cohen and colleagues for evaluation of social cognition in autism. By analyzing most recent clinical and brain imaging data, we illuminate a set of factors decisive for using the RMET. Converging evidence indicates: (i) In neurotypical individuals, RMET scores are tightly correlated with other social skills (empathy, emotional intelligence, and body language reading); (ii) The RMET assesses recognition of facial affect, but also heavily relies on receptive language skills, semantic knowledge, and memory; (iii) RMET performance is underwritten by the large-scale ensembles of neural networks well-outside the social brain; (iv) The RMET is limited in its capacity to differentiate between neuropsychiatric conditions as well as between stages and severity of a single disorder, though it reliably distinguishes individuals with altered social cognition or elevated pathological traits from neurotypical persons; (v) Merely gender (as a social construct) rather than neurobiological sex influences performance on the RMET; (vi) RMET scores do not substantially decline in healthy aging, and they are higher with higher education level, cognitive abilities, literacy, and mental well-being; (vii) Accuracy on the RMET, and engagement of the social brain, are greater when emotions are expressed and recognized by individuals with similar cultural/ethnic background. Further research is required to better inform usage of the RMET as a tool for swift and reliable examination of social cognition. In light of comparable visual input from the RMET images and faces covered by masks due to COVID-19 regulations, the analysis is of value for keeping efficient social interaction during the current pandemic, in particular, in professional settings related to social communication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina A Pavlova
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Tübingen Center for Menthal Health (TüCMH), Medical School and University Hospital, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.
| | - Arseny A Sokolov
- Service de neuropsychologie et de neuroréhabilitation, Département des neurosciences cliniques, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois (CHUV), Lausanne, Switzerland
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