Hemp in Animal Diets—Cannabidiol

Solid-state fermentation of hemp waste: enhancing the performance of Hermetia illucens larvae and altering the composition of hemp secondary metabolites

Solid-state fermentation (SSF) can increase the nutritional quality of low value substrates for insects. In this study, SSF using different fungal species was applied on a hemp waste substrate, and the fermentation was followed by a black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) feeding experiment during which 300 larvae were grown on 200 g (20.1% DM) substrate for 7-9 days depending on the treatment. Besides assessing the BSFL performance parameters, the presence of hemp cannabinoids, flavonoids, and terpenes was assessed through the process and compared among the treatments. The results show that BSFL growth parameters varied depending on the fungal species used. Fermenting the substrate with Ganoderma lucidum can lead to an increase in the BSFL dry yield (4.54 g) compared to the untreated substrate (2.86 g), likely due to enhancing carbon accessibility in the substrate. SSF using Trichoderma reesei increased the cannabidiol and ∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol mass fractions in the substrate, and consequently in the produced BSFL biomass, while decreasing the amounts of acidic cannabinoids. Both Hypsizygus ulmarius and Pleurotus ostreatus effectively removed cannabinoids from the substrate. This study confirms that pre-treating hemp wastes via SSF can enhance their nutritional value and/or reduce bioactive secondary metabolites, with different fungal species offering different and complementary performances in achieving different biotechnological goals.

A Systematic Review: Assessment of the Metabolomic Profile and Anti-Nutritional Factors of Cannabis sativa as a Feed Additive for Ruminants

Background:Cannabis sativa is a high-value crop that can be cultivated for ruminant's feed and medicinal purposes. The demand for Cannabis and Cannabis products has increased since the beginning of 21st century. Objectives: The increase in the production cost of high-protein feeds such as lucerne has led to an urgent need to investigate alternative high-protein sources. Methods: Cannabis has been identified as an alternative to lucerne due to its high protein content. Results: However, the cultivation and uses of Cannabis and its by-products in South Africa is limited due to the strict legislation. The metabolites and nutritional value of Cannabis are influenced by growing conditions and soil type. Furthermore, the available literature has shown that Cannabis contains anti-nutritional factors that may affect feed intake or bioavailability and digestibility. Conclusions: Therefore, it is crucial to employ a processing method that can reduce anti-nutritional factors to promote the feed intake and growth rate of sheep. Fermentation, as a processing method, can reduce anti-nutritional factors found in Cannabis, which will make it a palatable alternative feed supplement for ruminants such as Dorper sheep. Overall, this review paper aimed to examine the available literature on the use of Cannabis as an alternative high-protein feed supplement for Dorper sheep in South Africa.

In the weeds: A comprehensive review of cannabis; its chemical complexity, biosynthesis, and healing abilities

For millennia, various cultures have utilized cannabis for food, textile fiber, ethno-medicines, and pharmacotherapy, owing to its medicinal potential and psychotropic effects. An in-depth exploration of its historical, chemical, and therapeutic dimensions provides context for its contemporary understanding. The criminalization of cannabis in many countries was influenced by the presence of psychoactive cannabinoids; however, scientific advances and growing public awareness have renewed interest in cannabis-related products, especially for medical use. Described as a 'treasure trove,' cannabis produces a diverse array of cannabinoids and non-cannabinoid compounds. Recent research focuses on cannabinoids for treating conditions such as anxiety, depression, chronic pain, Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and epilepsy. Additionally, secondary metabolites like phenolic compounds, terpenes, and terpenoids are increasingly recognized for their therapeutic effects and their synergistic role with cannabinoids. These compounds show potential in treating neuro and non-neuro disorders, and studies suggest their promise as antitumoral agents. This comprehensive review integrates historical, chemical, and therapeutic perspectives on cannabis, highlighting contemporary research and its vast potential in medicine.

Interaction Between Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptors and Cannabidiol in the Gut of Chickens Applied to Different Challenge Conditions

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are important targets for cannabidiol (CBD), which mediate many of its biological actions. The hypothesis of the present research assumed that PPARs affect the gut response to different challenge factors in chickens (C. perfringens vs. lipopolysaccharides (LPS) from E. coli), and that CBD can mediate the pathways of this response. The study proved that CBD and the challenge factors significantly affect the expression level of PPARα (p = 0.001) and selected genes determining gut barrier function. A positive correlation was demonstrated between PPARs and genes involved in the formation of tight junctions, immune, and oxidative stress responses in chickens. Dietary supplementation with CBD actively mediated the expression rate of PPARs, but the mechanism of interaction between CBD and PPARs was different depending on the stress factor used. The addition of CBD to the birds' diets did not contribute to reducing intestinal permeability under induced stress conditions nor cause stress, as indicated by the absence of elevated blood cortisol and endotoxin levels. CBD also supported the mechanisms of protecting intestinal cells from the cytotoxic effects in a C. perfringens challenge through the levels of genes involved in oxidative stress. This study indicates the importance of research toward understanding the mechanisms of PPARs as a target for enhancing intestinal barrier function, provides new results on the biological action of CBD in chickens, and shows a constant PPAR association with the jejunum mucosa of birds.

Determination of Cannabinoids in Meat Products and Animal Feeds in Singapore Using Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry

There has been a growing interest in the use of hemp as an animal feed ingredient considering its economic value and nutritional properties. However, there is a paucity of research regarding the safety of hemp-based animal feed currently. Thus, this raises safety concerns on the potential transfer of cannabinoids from hemp-based animal feed to animal products intended for human consumption and its health effects. As such, the detection and quantification of cannabinoids in meat and animal feeds would be desirable for monitoring purposes. In this study, a simple, rapid and sensitive method for the simultaneous quantification of four major cannabinoids (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabidiol, cannabinol and tetrahydrocannabinolic acid) in meat and animal feeds by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) was successfully developed and validated. The method was selective and sensitive, achieving limits of detection and quantification for the four cannabinoids from 5 to 7 µg/kg and 15 to 21 µg/kg, respectively. The overall recovery with matrix-matched calibration curves for the cannabinoids ranged from 87-115%. The coefficients of variation were between 2.17-13.38% for intraday precision and 3.67-12.14% for inter-day precision. The method was subsequently applied to monitor cannabinoids in 120 meat and 24 animal feed samples. No cannabinoid was detected, suggesting no imminent food safety concerns arising from the potential incorporation of hemp and by-products in animal feed and nutrition under the promotion of sustainable agricultural practices.

Effects of Hemp-Derived Cannabidiol Supplementation on Blood Variables, Carcass Characteristics, and Meat Quality of Goats

Stress experienced by animals during pre-mortem management handling significantly affects both their welfare and the quality of the meat produced. Using hemp-derived CBD may offer several benefits in alleviating this issue. In this study, we investigated the effects of hemp-derived CBD supplementation on blood variables, growth performance, carcass characteristics, and meat quality in goats. Sixteen crossbred Boer goats were divided into four groups receiving a basal diet supplemented with 0 (control), 0.1, 0.2, or 0.3 mL CBD/30 kg body weight over 90 days. Although growth, carcass characteristics, and pH remained unaffected, CBD supplementation influenced several blood variables. Specifically, dietary CBD at 0.1-0.3 mL increased white blood cell (WBC) counts, while 0.3 mL CBD increased serum total protein, globulin, sodium, and carbon dioxide levels, potentially affecting protein metabolism and electrolyte balance. Over time, significant changes were noted in hematological profiles, kidney markers, protein profiles, and some electrolytes, indicating physiological adaptations. Regarding meat quality, supplementation with 0.2-0.3 mL of CBD linearly improved color redness and stability; moreover, CBD supplementation improved tenderness and textural properties, resulting in a softer meat texture. However, analysis using an E-nose indicated increased ammonia and organic solvent vapors in meat from the higher CBD groups. This study concluded that CBD supplementation up to 0.3 mL of CBD/30 kg body weight beneficially modulated blood biomarkers, meat color, and tenderness without adverse impacts on growth or carcass characteristics in goats.

Comparative Study of Gas and Liquid Chromatography Methods for the Determination of Underivatised Neutral and Acidic Cannabinoids and Cholesterol

The aim of our study was to develop a gas chromatographic method coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS) for the determination of underivatised neutral (CBDs-N) and acidic (CBDs-A) cannabinoids (CBDs) and cholesterol (Chol). Emphasis was also placed on comparing our original GC-MS method with the currently developed C18-high-performance liquid chromatography with photodiode detection (C18-HPLC-DAD). A combination of a long GC column, shallow temperature column programme, and mass-spectrometry was employed to avoid issues arising from the overlap between CBDs and Chol and background fluctuations. The pre-column procedure for CBDs and Chol in egg yolks consisted of hexane extractions, whereas the pre-column procedure for CBDs in non-animal samples involved methanol and hexane extractions. CBDs-A underwent decarboxylation to CBDs during GC-MS analyses, and pre-column extraction of the processed sample with NaOH solution allowed for CBD-A removal. No losses of CBDs-N were observed in the samples extracted with NaOH solution. GC-MS analyses of the samples before and after extraction with NaOH solution enabled the quantification of CBDs-A and CBDs-N. CBDs-A did not undergo decarboxylation to CBDs-N during C18-HPLC-DAD runs. The use of the C18-HPLC-DAD method allowed simultaneous determination of CBDs-N and CBDs-A. In comparison to the C18-HPLC-DAD method, our GC-MS technique offered improved sensitivity, precision, specificity, and satisfactory separation of underivatised CBDs and Chol from biological materials of endogenous species, especially in hemp and hen egg yolk. The scientific novelty of the present study is the application of the GC-MS method for quantifying underivatised CBDs-A, CBDs-N, and Chol in the samples of interest.

Immunostimulatory and Antibacterial Effects of Cannabis sativa L. Leaves on Broilers

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of dried Cannabis sativa L. leaves as a phytogenic mixture added to broiler feed on CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocyte subpopulations, Newcastle disease virus (NDV) antibody titres, and the presence of E. coli in faecal samples. The study was conducted on 100 male Ross 308 broilers, divided into four groups of 25 broilers, for a 42-day research period. The groups were housed separately in boxes on a litter of softwood shavings and were fed starter mixture from day 1 to day 21 and finisher mixture from day 22 to day 42. Industrial hemp (C. sativa) was grown in the Crkvina area, Croatia (latitude: 45°18'46.8″ N; longitude: 15°31'30″ E). The hemp leaves were manually separated, sun-dried, and ground to a powder. The mixture offered to the control group did not contain cannabis leaves, whereas the three experimental groups received mixtures containing mixed cannabis leaves in a quantity of 10 g/kg, 20 g/kg, or 30 g/kg (E_10, E_20, and E_30, respectively). The mean NDV antibody level was uniform in all study groups until post-vaccination day 14 and increased comparably with time. The percentage of CD4+ and CD8+ lymphocytes in the peripheral blood subpopulation showed statistically significant differences (p < 0.001) in the E_20 group as compared with the control group and both the E_10 and E_30 groups throughout the study period. As the broiler age increased, the CD4+-to-CD8+ ratios also increased and were statistically significant (p < 0.0001) on day 42 in all experimental groups as compared to the control group. Comparing the control group with the experimental groups indicated that the bacterial count was lower in broiler groups having received feed with the addition of 20 g/kg and 30 g/kg C. sativa leaves. In conclusion, the C. sativa leaves were found to elicit a favourable immunomodulatory effect on cell-mediated and humoral immune responses in broilers via increased CD4+ and CD8+ lymphocyte subpopulations and higher CD4+:CD8+ cell ratios, thus indicating enhanced immune function capacity. In addition, C. sativa leaves may have complementary effects on the broiler post-vaccination immune response, increase broilers' resistance to infectious diseases, reduce the effect of stress associated with vaccination, and improve broiler health and welfare.

Impacts of supplementing Cannabis sativa byproducts during the transition period on behaviour, feed consumption, constipation levels, colostrum production and piglet performance in hyperprolific sows

In the modern swine industry, inflammation and pain in sows after farrowing represent a crucial animal welfare concern. Cannabis sativa, a medicinal plant, has analgesic, anti-inflammatory and antipyretic properties and is rich in fibre. The objective of this study is to examine the impacts of supplementing sows with Cannabis sativa byproducts during transition periods (7 days before and after farrowing) on various aspects including postpartum behaviour, feed intake, constipation, farrowing duration, colostrum yield and piglet performance. The experiment involved a total of 100 Landrace × Yorkshire sows. The sows were distributed according to parity numbers into two groups, i.e., control (n = 54) and treatment (n = 46). The control group was provided with a lactation diet at 3.0-3.5 kg per day for a period of 7 days before and after farrowing. The treatment groups received the same quantity of the diet but with an additional supplementation of 150 g/d of Cannabis sativa byproduct. The byproduct was analysed and contained 0.24 % (w/w) cannabidiol (CBD), resulting in a daily intake of 360 mg of CBD per sow. The conventional lactational diet had a dietary fibre content of 4.3 %, whereas the diet supplemented with Cannabis sativa byproduct had a higher dietary fibre content of 16.9 %. Video cameras were used to observe and document the behaviour of sows within the initial 24 h after farrowing. The duration in which sows engaged in activities such as sleeping, sitting, standing, feeding and nursing their piglets was quantified. Additionally, the rectal temperature of the sows was measured, and a temperature equal to or exceeding 39.5 °C was considered indicative of fever. The faecal score of the sows was assessed, and a faecal score of ≤2 was classified as constipation. On the third day postpartum, the proportion of sows with fever in the treatment group was lower than that in the control group (20.0 % and 38.9 % respectively, P = 0.051). Sows receiving supplementation with Cannabis sativa byproducts exhibited increased durations of standing and feeding compared to those in the control group (P < 0.05). Notably, overall, sows without constipation issues spent more time consuming feed than those experiencing constipation (P = 0.006). The prevalence of constipation was significantly lower in the treatment group compared to the control group (17.4 % and 81.5 %, respectively, P < 0.001). Furthermore, the postpartum sows demonstrated increased feed intake following supplementation with Cannabis sativa byproducts (P < 0.05). Sow colostrum yield, piglet colostrum intake, piglet mortality and other piglet traits did not differ between the control and treatment groups (P > 0.05). In conclusion, supplementing Cannabis sativa byproducts during the transition periods in peri-parturient sows under tropical conditions resulted in a reduction in constipation issues and improved sow activities, such as increased time spent standing and consuming feed within the first 24 h postpartum.

Fast and sensitive LC-MS/MS method for quantification of cannabinoids and their metabolites in plasma of cattle fed hemp

Hemp-based materials have gained interest as alternative feed ingredients for livestock. However, safety concerns arise regarding the transfer of cannabinoids from the plant to the animals. Addressing these concerns requires the use of methods capable of detecting and quantifying cannabinoids in livestock. In this study, a fast and sensitive method was developed for quantification of cannabinoids and cannabinoid metabolites in cattle plasma using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The extraction of cannabinoids from the plasma matrix was achieved by combining the Captiva Enhanced Matrix Removal-Lipid clean-up and salting-out assisted liquid-liquid extraction procedure. The developed method underwent validation using various analytical parameters, and the results demonstrated good accuracy, precision, specificity, and high sensitivity. The method was applied to real plasma samples obtained from cattle fed hemp for 2 weeks, and successfully detected various cannabinoids, including delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol. Furthermore, the study revealed that 7-carboxy cannabidiol, a metabolite of cannabidiol, was the predominant cannabinoid present in the cattle plasma throughout the feeding period, which could remain detectable for weeks after the hemp feeding had ended.

The Effects of Fresh Hemp Leaf Supplementation (Cannabis sativa) on the Physiological and Carcass Characteristics and Meat Quality in Transported Goats

Transportation stress adversely affects animal health, productivity, and meat quality. Bioactive plant compounds may alleviate transit stress in livestock. This study evaluated the effects of fresh hemp leaf supplementation on blood metabolites, performance, carcass traits, and meat quality in transported goats. Twenty male goats (15 ± 2.76 kgBW) were investigated, some were given a hemp supplement (n = 10) and the remaining goats were used as a control group (n = 10). The hemp group received 10 g/30 kg body weight of fresh leaves prior to transportation. Blood samples were analyzed before and after the 200 km journey. The goats were slaughtered after transit and the quality of the meat examined. In the controlled group, transportation increased neutrophils and electrolytes, but decreased lymphocytes and hemoglobin. In contrast in the hemp-supplemented group, the hemp maintained this animal blood parameters. Body weight and carcass yield, however, did not differ between the two groups. Hemp reduced meat redness at 1 h postmortem but had minimal effects on its pH, color, water holding capacity, tenderness, and texture after 24 h. However, hemp supplementation did alter the odor profiles between the two groups detected by electronic nose sensors. In conclusion, fresh hemp leaf supplementation maintained blood metabolites and had minor advantageous effects on meat quality in response to transportation stress in goats. Further investigation using hemp supplements shows potential to alleviate transit stress, although higher doses may be required in order to further enhance its benefits.

Therapeutic efficacy and pharmacokinetics of liposomal-cannabidiol injection: a pilot clinical study in dogs with naturally-occurring osteoarthritis

Introduction

Osteoarthritis is a common disease in dogs resulting in chronic pain and decreased wellbeing. Common analgesics such as non-steroidal anti-inflammatories may fail to control pain and can produce major adverse effects. Study objectives were to evaluate pharmacokinetics, therapeutic efficacy, and safety of subcutaneous liposomal-cannabidiol (CBD) as an additional analgesic therapy in dogs suffering from naturally-occurring osteoarthritis.

Methods

Six such dogs were recruited following ethics approval and owner consent. Dogs were administered a single subcutaneous injection of 5 mg/kg liposomal-CBD. Plasma concentrations of CBD, blood work, activity monitoring collar data, wellbeing questionnaire (owners) and pain scoring (veterinarian) were performed at baseline and monitored up to six weeks following intervention. Data overtime were compared with baseline using linear-regression mixed-effects. P-value was set at 0.05.

Results

CBD plasma concentrations were observed for 6 weeks; median (range) peak plasma concentration (Cmax) was 45.2 (17.8-72.5) ng/mL, time to Cmax was 4 (2-14) days and half-life was 12.4 (7.7-42.6) days. Median (range) collar activity score was significantly increased on weeks 5-6; from 29 (17-34) to 34 (21-38). Scores of wellbeing and pain evaluations were significantly improved at 2-3 weeks; from 69 (52-78) to 53.5 (41-68), and from 7.5 (6-8) to 5.5 (5-7), respectively. The main adverse effect was minor local swelling for several days in 5/6 dogs.

Conclusion

Liposomal-CBD administered subcutaneously produced detectable CBD plasma concentrations for 6 weeks with minimal side effects and demonstrated reduced pain and increased wellbeing as part of multimodal pain management in dogs suffering from osteoarthritis. Further placebo-controlled studies are of interest.

Impact of Cannabis Seed Incorporation in Layer Diet on Productive Performance and Egg Quality Traits

The production of nonindustrial cannabis is highly developed in the Moroccan Rif region; however, local farmers consider hemp seeds which are rich in omega 3 and tocopherols, only as by-products of cannabis cultivation with low market value. The local ecotype is considered to be a plant with a cannabinoid content of more than 0.4%. So, the objective of this research is to investigate how the incorporation of this local hemp seed affects productive performance and egg quality traits. The experiment is conducted to evaluate the effects of hemp seed (HS) incorporation on hen laying performance and physical egg quality at three levels: 10% (HS-10% group), 20% (HS-20% group), and 30% (HS-30% group). Ninety-six Lohmann Brown classic laying hens were randomly assigned to a control group and three feed treatments. The sampling was taken after the 28-week rearing period (peak egg laying). Throughout the experiment, low-rate HS inclusion (HS-10%) showed no significant differences in egg-laying performance (p > 0.05). However, the high incorporation rates of HS (20% and 30%) negatively affected the egg-laying performance (84-94% and 80-86%, respectively). The albumen quality was also improved by the HS inclusion, where the highest values of the Haugh unit were recorded, ranging between 68.69 and 73.91 for the HS-30% groups. The results also show that HS inclusion and duration influence significantly the yolk color (p < 0.001). The yellow intensity decreases with HS incorporation and aging, from a dark yellow (b ^∗  = 38.63 for the control group) to a very pale yellow (b ^∗  = 26.29 for HS 30% group). Based on these findings, we can conclude that the incorporation of nonindustrial Moroccan cannabis seeds (ecotype Beldiya) at low rate in the diet of laying hens does not alter the laying performance or the quality of the egg; therefore, they could be used in poultry feeding as an alternative constituent to partially replace high-cost imported ingredients, such as corn and soybeans.

Cannabidiol and Nano-Selenium Increase Microvascularization and Reduce Degenerative Changes in Superficial Breast Muscle in C. perfringens-Infected Chickens

Here, we demonstrated the potential of Cannabis-derived cannabidiol (CBD) and nanosized selenium (nano-Se) for the modulation of microvascularization and muscle fiber lesions in superficial breast muscle in C. perfringens-challenged chickens. The administration of CBD resulted in a decreased number of atrophic fibers (3.13 vs. 1.13/1.5 mm²) compared with the control, whereas nano-Se or both substances resulted in a decreased split fiber number (4.13 vs. 1.55/1.5 mm²) and in a lower number of necrotic myofibers (2.38 vs. 0.69/1.5 mm²) in breast muscle than the positive control. There was a significantly higher number of capillary vessels in chickens in the CBD+Nano-Se group than in the control and positive control groups (1.31 vs. 0.97 and 0.98, respectively). Feeding birds experimental diets lowered the activity of DNA damage repair enzymes, including 3,N4-ethenodeoxycytosine (by 39.6%), 1,N6-ethenodeoxyadenosine (by 37.5%), 8-oxo-guanine (by 36.2%), formamidopyrimidine (fapy)-DNA glycosylase (by 56.2%) and human alkyl adenine DNA glycosylase (by 40.2%) in the ileal mucosa, but it did not compromise the blood mitochondrial oxygen consumption rate (-2.67 OD/min on average). These findings indicate a potential link between gut mucosa condition and histopathological changes in superficial pectoral muscle under induced inflammation and show the ameliorative effect of CBD and nano-Se in this cross-talk due to their protection from mucosal DNA damage.

Cannabidiol affects breast meat volatile compounds in chickens subjected to different infection models

No study has demonstrated the use of dietary Cannabis-derived cannabidiol (CBD) to alter the stress response in chickens or examined its effects on meat volatile compounds (VOCs). Here, we subjected chickens to dysbiosis via C. perfringens infection or Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide (LPS) treatment and investigated the potential link between meat VOCs and cecal bacterial activity and the ameliorative effect of CBD. The cecal bacterial production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) was closely correlated with meat VOCs. CBD supplementation reduced the formation of breast meat spoilage VOCs, including alcohols, trimethylamine and pentanoic acid, in the challenged birds, partly by decreasing cecal putrefactive SCFA production. Meat VOC/cecal SCFA relationships differed according to the challenge, and CBD attenuated the effects of C. perfringens infection better than the effects of LPS challenge on meat VOCs. These findings provide new insights into the interactions among bioactive agent supplementation, gut microbiota activity and meat properties in birds.