Extracellular Vesicles from Healthy Cells Improves Cell Function and Stemness in Premature Senescent Stem Cells by miR-302b and HIF-1α Activation

Role of Hypoxia in Mesenchymal Stem Cells from Dental Pulp: Influence, Mechanism and Application

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) from dental pulp (DP-MSCs), which include dental pulp stem cells (DPSCs) isolated from permanent teeth and stem cells from human exfoliated deciduous teeth (SHED), have emerged as highly promising cell sources for tissue regeneration, due to their high proliferative rate, multi-lineage differentiation capability and non-invasive accessibility. DP-MSCs also exert extensive paracrine effects through the release of extracellular vesicles (EVs) and multiple trophic factors. To be noted, the microenvironment, commonly referred to as the stem cell niche, plays a crucial role in shaping the functionality and therapeutic effects of DP-MSCs, within which hypoxia has garnered considerable attention. Extensive research has demonstrated that hypoxic conditions profoundly impact DP-MSCs. Specifically, hypoxia promotes DP-MSC proliferation, survival, stemness, migration, and pro-angiogenic potential while modulating their multi-lineage differentiation capacity. Furthermore, hypoxia stimulates the paracrine activities of DP-MSCs, leading to an increased production of EVs and soluble factors. Considering these findings, hypoxia preconditioning has emerged as a promising approach to enhance the therapeutic potential of DP-MSCs. In this comprehensive review, we provide a systematic overview of the influence of hypoxia on DP-MSCs, shedding light on the underlying mechanisms involved. Moreover, we also discuss the potential applications of hypoxia-preconditioned DP-MSCs or their secretome in tissue regeneration. Additionally, we delve into the methodologies employed to simulate hypoxic environments. This review aims to promote a comprehensive and systematic understanding of the hypoxia-induced effects on DP-MSCs and facilitate the refinement of regenerative therapeutic strategies based on DP-MSCs.

The occurrence and development of induced pluripotent stem cells

The ectopic expression of four transcription factors, Oct3/4, Sox2, Klf4, and c-Myc (OSKM), known as "Yamanaka factors," can reprogram or stimulate the production of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). Although OSKM is still the gold standard, there are multiple ways to reprogram cells into iPSCs. In recent years, significant progress has been made in improving the efficiency of this technology. Ten years after the first report was published, human pluripotent stem cells have gradually been applied in clinical settings, including disease modeling, cell therapy, new drug development, and cell derivation. Here, we provide a review of the discovery of iPSCs and their applications in disease and development.

Applications of Exosomal miRNAs from Mesenchymal Stem Cells as Skin Boosters

The skin is the outer layer of the human body, and it is crucial in defending against injuries and damage. The regenerative capacity of aging and damaged skin caused by exposure to external stimuli is significantly impaired. Currently, the rise in average life expectancy and the modern population's aesthetic standards have sparked a desire for stem-cell-based therapies that can address skin health conditions. In recent years, mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) as therapeutic agents have provided a promising and effective alternative for managing skin regeneration and rejuvenation, attributing to their healing capacities that can be applied to damaged and aged skin. However, it has been established that the therapeutic effects of MSC may be primarily mediated by paracrine mechanisms, particularly the release of exosomes (Exos). Exosomes are nanoscale extracellular vesicles (EVs) that have lipid bilayer and membrane structures and can be naturally released by different types of cells. They influence the physiological and pathological processes of recipient cells by transferring a variety of bioactive molecules, including lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids such as messenger RNAs (mRNAs) and microRNAs (miRNAs) between cells, thus playing an important role in intercellular communication and activating signaling pathways in target cells. Among them, miRNAs, a type of endogenous regulatory non-coding RNA, are often incorporated into exosomes as important signaling molecules regulating protein biosynthesis. Emerging evidence suggests that exosomal miRNAs from MSC play a key role in skin regeneration and rejuvenation by targeting multiple genes and regulating various biological processes, such as participating in inflammatory responses, cell migration, proliferation, and apoptosis. In this review, we summarize the recent studies and observations on how MSC-derived exosomal miRNAs contribute to the regeneration and rejuvenation of skin tissue, with particular attention to the applications of bioengineering methods for manipulating the miRNA content of exosome cargo to improve their therapeutic potential. This review can provide new clues for the diagnosis and treatment of skin damage and aging, as well as assist investigators in exploring innovative therapeutic strategies for treating a multitude of skin problems with the aim of delaying skin aging, promoting skin regeneration, and maintaining healthy skin.

Extracellular vesicles in the treatment of oxidative stress injury: global research status and trends

Objective: The aim of this study was to conduct a bibliometric analysis of the literature on "Extracellular Vesicles in the Treatment of Oxidative Stress Injury" and to reveal its current status, hot spots and trends. Methods: The relevant literature was obtained from the Web of Science Core Collection (WoSCC) on 29 April 2023. We performed clustering and partnership analysis of authors, institutions, countries, references and keywords in the literature through CiteSpace software and the bibliometric online analysis platform and mapped the relevant knowledge maps. Results: A total of 1,321 relevant publications were included in the bibliometric analysis, with the number of publications in this field increasing year by year. These included 944 "articles" and 377 "reviews". The maximum number of publications published in China is 512, and the maximum number of highly cited publications published in the United States is 20. Based on CiteSpace, the country collaboration network map shows close and stable collaboration among high-productivity countries. Based on WoSCC, there are 1706 relevant research institutions and 119 highly cited elite institutions, among which Kaohsing Chang Gung Men Hosp has the most extensive influence. Studies related to "Extracellular Vesicles in the Treatment of Oxidative Stress Injury" have been published in 548 journals. The keywords of the publications show the main research areas and breakthroughs. Based on WoSCC, the keywords of the research area "Extracellular Vesicles in the Treatment of Oxidative Stress Injury" were found to be as follows: exosome(s), extracellular vesicle(s), oxidative stress, inflammation, mesenchymal stem cells, apoptosis, microRNA (miRNA), mitochondria, biomarker, autophagy, angiogenesis and Alzheimer's disease. Analysis showed that "mesenchymal stem cells", "microRNA", "autophagy", "histology" and "therapeutic" emerged as highly explosive keywords. Conclusion: This study is the first to use visual software and data mining to assess the literature in the field of "Extracellular Vesicles in the Treatment of Oxidative Stress Injury". The research history, research status and direction in this field provide a theoretical basis for its scientific research.

Extracellular Vesicles and Hydrogels: An Innovative Approach to Tissue Regeneration

Extracellular vesicles have emerged as promising tools in regenerative medicine due to their inherent ability to facilitate intercellular communication and modulate cellular functions. These nanosized vesicles transport bioactive molecules, such as proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, which can affect the behavior of recipient cells and promote tissue regeneration. However, the therapeutic application of these vesicles is frequently constrained by their rapid clearance from the body and inability to maintain a sustained presence at the injury site. In order to overcome these obstacles, hydrogels have been used as extracellular vesicle delivery vehicles, providing a localized and controlled release system that improves their therapeutic efficacy. This Review will examine the role of extracellular vesicle-loaded hydrogels in tissue regeneration, discussing potential applications, current challenges, and future directions. We will investigate the origins, composition, and characterization techniques of extracellular vesicles, focusing on recent advances in exosome profiling and the role of machine learning in this field. In addition, we will investigate the properties of hydrogels that make them ideal extracellular vesicle carriers. Recent studies utilizing this combination for tissue regeneration will be highlighted, providing a comprehensive overview of the current research landscape and potential future directions.

Non-Intrinsic, Systemic Mechanisms of Cellular Senescence

Cellular senescence is believed to contribute to aging and disease through the activity of secreted factors that promote inflammation, remodel the extracellular matrix, and adversely modify the behavior of non-senescent cells. While the markers and properties of senescent cells are still under investigation, it is postulated that cellular senescence manifests in vivo as the consequence of cellular damage that accumulates and becomes exacerbated with time. Yet, the notions that senescence has a solely intrinsic and time-dependent nature are questioned by the rapid induction of senescence in young mice and young cells in vitro by exposure to blood from aged animals. Here, we review some of the research on the systemically present factors that increase with age and may contribute to extrinsically induced senescence or "bystander senescence". These include proteins, reactive oxygen species, lipids, and nucleic acids, which may be present in individual soluble form, in vesicles, and in non-membranous multi-component macromolecules.

Therapeutic efficacy and promise of stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles in Alzheimer's disease and other aging-related disorders

The term extracellular vesicles (EVs) refers to a variety of heterogeneous nanovesicles secreted by almost all cell types, primarily for intercellular communication and maintaining cellular homeostasis. The role of EVs has been widely reported in the genesis and progression of multiple pathological conditions, and these vesicles are suggested to serve as 'liquid biopsies'. In addition to their use as biomarkers, EVs secreted by specific cell types, especially with stem cell properties, have shown promise as cell-free nanotherapeutics. Stem cell-derived EVs (SC-EVs) have been increasingly used as an attractive alternative to stem cell therapies and have been reported to promote regeneration of aging-associated tissue loss and function. SC-EVs treatment ameliorates brain and peripheral aging, reproductive dysfunctions and inhibits cellular senescence, thereby reversing several aging-related disorders and dysfunctions. The anti-aging therapeutic potential of SC-EVs depends on multiple factors, including the type of stem cells, the age of the source stem cells, and their physiological state. In this review, we briefly describe studies related to the promising effects of SC-EVs against various aging-related pathologies, and then we focus in-depth on the therapeutic benefits of SC-EVs against Alzheimer's disease, one of the most devastating neurodegenerative diseases in elderly individuals. Numerous studies in transgenic mouse models have reported the usefulness of SC-EVs in targeting the pathological hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease, including amyloid plaques, neurofibrillary tangles, and neuroinflammation, leading to improved neuronal protection, synaptic plasticity, and cognitive measures. Cell culture studies have further identified the underlying molecular mechanisms through which SC-EVs reduce amyloid beta (Aβ) levels or shift microglia phenotype from pro-inflammatory to anti-inflammatory state. Interestingly, multiple routes of administration, including nasal delivery, have confirmed that SC-EVs could cross the blood-brain barrier. Due to this, SC-EVs have also been tested to deliver specific therapeutic cargo molecule/s (e.g., neprilysin) to the brain. Despite these promises, several challenges related to quality control, scalability, and biodistribution remain, hindering the realization of the vast clinical promise of SC-EVs.

Mitochondria pleiotropism in stem cell senescence: Mechanisms and therapeutic approaches

Aging is a complex biological process characterized by a progressive decline in cellular and tissue function, ultimately leading to organismal aging. Stem cells, with their regenerative potential, play a crucial role in maintaining tissue homeostasis and repair throughout an organism's lifespan. Mitochondria, the powerhouses of the cell, have emerged as key players in the aging process, impacting stem cell function and contributing to age-related tissue dysfunction. Here are discuss the mechanisms through which mitochondria influence stem cell fate decisions, including energy production, metabolic regulation, ROS signalling, and epigenetic modifications. Therefore, this review highlights the role of mitochondria in driving stem cell senescence and the subsequent impact on tissue function, leading to overall organismal aging and age-related diseases. Finally, we explore potential anti-aging therapies targeting mitochondrial health and discuss their implications for promoting healthy aging. This comprehensive review sheds light on the critical interplay between mitochondrial function, stem cell senescence, and organismal aging, offering insights into potential strategies for attenuating age-related decline and promoting healthy longevity.

Converging protective pathways: Exploring the linkage between physical exercise, extracellular vesicles and oxidative stress

Physical Exercise (EXR) has been shown to have numerous beneficial effects on various systems in the human body. It leads to a decrease in the risk of mortality from chronic diseases, such as cardiovascular disease, cancer, metabolic and central nervous system disorders. EXR results in improving cardiovascular fitness, cognitive function, immune activity, endocrine action, and musculoskeletal health. These positive effects make EXR a valuable intervention for promoting overall health and well-being in individuals of all ages. These beneficial effects are partially mediated by the role of the regular EXR in the adaptation to redox homeostasis counteracting the sudden increase of ROS, the hallmark of many chronic diseases. EXR can trigger the release of numerous humoral factors, e.g. protein, microRNA (miRs), and DNA, that can be shuttled as cargo of Extracellular vesicles (EVs). EVs show different cargo modification after oxidative stress stimuli as well as after EXR. In this review, we aim to highlight the main studies on the role of EVs released during EXR and oxidative stress conditions in enhancing the antioxidant enzymes pathway and in the decrease of oxidative stress environment mediated by their cargo.

Mesenchymal Stem Cell Senescence during Aging:From Mechanisms to Rejuvenation Strategies

In cell transplantation therapy, mesenchymal stem cells(MSCs)are ideal seed cells due to their easy acquisition and cultivation, strong regenerative capacity, multi-directional differentiation abilities, and immunomodulatory effects. Autologous MSCs are better applicable compared with allogeneic MSCs in clinical practice. The elderly are the main population for cell transplantation therapy, but as donor aging, MSCs in the tissue show aging-related changes. When the number of generations of in vitro expansion is increased, MSCs will also exhibit replicative senescence. The quantity and quality of MSCs decline during aging, which limits the efficacy of autologous MSCs transplantation therapy. In this review, we examine the changes in MSC senescence as a result of aging, discuss the progress of research on mechanisms and signalling pathways of MSC senescence, and discuss possible rejuvenation strategies of aged MSCs to combat senescence and enhance the health and therapeutic potential of MSCs.

Research progress of extracellular vesicles and exosomes derived from mesenchymal stem cells in the treatment of oxidative stress-related diseases

There is growing evidence that mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles and exosomes can significantly improve the curative effect of oxidative stress-related diseases. Mesenchymal stem cell extracellular vesicles and exosomes (MSC-EVs and MSC-Exos) are rich in bioactive molecules and have many biological regulatory functions. In this review, we describe how MSC-EVs and MSC-Exos reduce the related markers of oxidative stress and inflammation in various systemic diseases, and the molecular mechanism of MSC-EVs and MSC-Exos in treating apoptosis and vascular injury induced by oxidative stress. The results of a large number of experimental studies have shown that both local and systemic administration can effectively inhibit the oxidative stress response in diseases and promote the survival and regeneration of damaged parenchymal cells. The mRNA and miRNAs in MSC-EVs and MSC-Exos are the most important bioactive molecules in disease treatment, which can inhibit the apoptosis, necrosis and oxidative stress of lung, heart, kidney, liver, bone, skin and other cells, and promote their survive and regenerate.

Airway Epithelium Senescence as a Driving Mechanism in COPD Pathogenesis

Cellular senescence is a state of permanent cell cycle arrest triggered by various intrinsic and extrinsic stressors. Cellular senescence results in impaired tissue repair and remodeling, loss of physiological integrity, organ dysfunction, and changes in the secretome. The systemic accumulation of senescence cells has been observed in many age-related diseases. Likewise, cellular senescence has been implicated as a risk factor and driving mechanism in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) pathogenesis. Airway epithelium exhibits hallmark features of senescence in COPD including activation of the p53/p21WAF1/CIP1 and p16INK4A/RB pathways, leading to cell cycle arrest. Airway epithelial senescent cells secrete an array of inflammatory mediators, the so-called senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP), leading to a persistent low-grade chronic inflammation in COPD. SASP further promotes senescence in an autocrine and paracrine manner, potentially contributing to the onset and progression of COPD. In addition, cellular senescence in COPD airway epithelium is associated with telomere dysfunction, DNA damage, and oxidative stress. This review discusses the potential mechanisms of airway epithelial cell senescence in COPD, the impact of cellular senescence on the development and severity of the disease, and highlights potential targets for modulating cellular senescence in airway epithelium as a potential therapeutic approach in COPD.

The Role of HIF-1α in Bone Regeneration: A New Direction and Challenge in Bone Tissue Engineering

The process of repairing significant bone defects requires the recruitment of a considerable number of cells for osteogenesis-related activities, which implies the consumption of a substantial amount of oxygen and nutrients. Therefore, the limited supply of nutrients and oxygen at the defect site is a vital constraint that affects the regenerative effect, which is closely related to the degree of a well-established vascular network. Hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF-1α), which is an essential transcription factor activated in hypoxic environments, plays a vital role in vascular network construction. HIF-1α, which plays a central role in regulating cartilage and bone formation, induces vascular invasion and differentiation of osteoprogenitor cells to promote and maintain extracellular matrix production by mediating the adaptive response of cells to changes in oxygen levels. However, the application of HIF-1α in bone tissue engineering is still controversial. As such, clarifying the function of HIF-1α in regulating the bone regeneration process is one of the urgent issues that need to be addressed. This review provides insight into the mechanisms of HIF-1α action in bone regeneration and related recent advances. It also describes current strategies for applying hypoxia induction and hypoxia mimicry in bone tissue engineering, providing theoretical support for the use of HIF-1α in establishing a novel and feasible bone repair strategy in clinical settings.

Small extracellular vesicles from senescent stem cells trigger adaptive mechanisms in young stem cells by increasing antioxidant enzyme expression

Extracellular vesicles' biogenesis, shedding, and uptake are redox-sensitive. Indeed, oxidative stress conditions influence extracellular vesicles' release and content, which can modulate the redox status of the receiving cells. In this study, we aimed to assess the effect of extracellular vesicles from human dental pulp stem cells cultured under 21% O₂ (senescent stem cells) on human dental pulp stem cells cultured under 3% O₂ (young stem cells). Extracellular vesicles were isolated by ultracentrifugation from senescent stem cells and prepared for the treatment of young stem cells at a final concentration of 10 μg/mL. Cells were analyzed for antioxidant gene expression, mitochondrial bioenergetic parameters, ROS production, culture kinetics, and apoptosis. The results show that extracellular vesicles from senescent stem cells induce overexpression of antioxidant genes (MnSOD, CAT, and GPx) in young stem cells, which show an increased non-mitochondrial oxygen consumption, accompanied by reduced maximal respiration and spare respiratory capacity without altering mitochondrial membrane potential. This is accompanied by improved cell proliferation, viability, and migration rates and a reduction of apoptosis. In conclusion, extracellular vesicles from senescent stem cells trigger an adaptive response in young stem cells which improves their antioxidant defenses and their proliferation, migration, and survival rates. This suggests that extracellular vesicles can modulate the cells' microenvironment and the balance between proliferation and senescence.

Extracellular Vesicles as Therapeutic Resources in the Clinical Environment

The native role of extracellular vesicles (EVs) in mediating the transfer of biomolecules between cells has raised the possibility to use them as therapeutic vehicles. The development of therapies based on EVs is now expanding rapidly; here we will describe the current knowledge on different key points regarding the use of EVs in a clinical setting. These points are related to cell sources of EVs, isolation, storage, and delivery methods, as well as modifications to the releasing cells for improved production of EVs. Finally, we will depict the application of EVs therapies in clinical trials, considering the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the development of these therapies, pointing out that although it is a promising therapy for human diseases, we are still in the initial phase of its application to patients.

The Double-Edged Role of Extracellular Vesicles in the Hallmarks of Aging

The exponential growth in the elderly population and their associated socioeconomic burden have recently brought aging research into the spotlight. To integrate current knowledge and guide potential interventions, nine biochemical pathways are summarized under the term hallmarks of aging. These hallmarks are deeply inter-related and act together to drive the aging process. Altered intercellular communication is particularly relevant since it explains how damage at the cellular level translates into age-related loss of function at the organismal level. As the main effectors of intercellular communication, extracellular vesicles (EVs) might play a key role in the aggravation or mitigation of the hallmarks of aging. This review aims to summarize this role and to provide context for the multiple emerging EV-based gerotherapeutic strategies that are currently under study.

Extracellular Vesicles and Cellular Ageing

Ageing is a complex process characterized by deteriorated performance at multiple levels, starting from cellular dysfunction to organ degeneration. Stem cell-based therapies aim to administrate stem cells that eventually migrate to the injured site to replenish the damaged tissue and recover tissue functionality. Stem cells can be easily obtained and cultured in vitro, and display several qualities such as self-renewal, differentiation, and immunomodulation that make them suitable candidates for stem cell-based therapies. Current animal studies and clinical trials are being performed to assess the safety and beneficial effects of stem cell engraftments for regenerative medicine in ageing and age-related diseases.Since alterations in cell-cell communication have been associated with the development of pathophysiological processes, new research is focusing on the modulation of the microenvironment. Recent research has highlighted the important role of some microenvironment components that modulate cell-cell communication, thus spreading signals from damaged ageing cells to neighbor healthy cells, thereby promoting systemic ageing. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are small-rounded vesicles released by almost every cell type. EVs cargo includes several bioactive molecules, such as lipids, proteins, and genetic material. Once internalized by target cells, their specific cargo can induce epigenetic modifications and alter the fate of the recipient cells. Also, EV's content is dependent on the releasing cells, thus, EVs can be used as biomarkers for several diseases. Moreover, EVs have been proposed to be used as cell-free therapies that focus on their administration to slow or even reverse some hallmarks of physiological ageing. It is not surprising that EVs are also under study as next-generation therapies for age-related diseases.

Rejuvenation of Senescent Mesenchymal Stem Cells to Prevent Age-Related Changes in Synovial Joints

Mesenchymal/medicinal stem/signaling cells (MSCs), well known for regenerative potential, have been involved in hundreds of clinical trials. Even if equipped with reparative properties, aging significantly decreases their biological activity, representing a major challenge for MSC-based therapies. Age-related joint diseases, such as osteoarthritis, are associated with the accumulation of senescent cells, including synovial MSCs. An impaired ability of MSCs to self-renew and differentiate is one of the main contributors to the human aging process. Moreover, senescent MSCs (sMSCs) are characterized by the senescence-messaging secretome (SMS), which is typically manifested by the release of molecules with an adverse effect. Many factors, from genetic and metabolic pathways to environmental stressors, participate in the regulation of the senescent phenotype of MSCs. To better understand cellular senescence in MSCs, this review discusses the characteristics of sMSCs, their role in cartilage and synovial joint aging, and current rejuvenation approaches to delay/reverse age-related pathological changes, providing evidence from in vivo experiments as well.

Therapeutic Potential of Extracellular Vesicles in Aging and Age-Related Diseases

Aging is associated with an alteration of intercellular communication. These changes in the extracellular environment contribute to the aging phenotype and have been linked to different aging-related diseases. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are factors that mediate the transmission of signaling molecules between cells. In the aging field, these EVs have been shown to regulate important aging processes, such as oxidative stress or senescence, both in vivo and in vitro. EVs from healthy cells, particularly those coming from stem cells (SCs), have been described as potential effectors of the regenerative potential of SCs. Many studies with different animal models have shown promising results in the field of regenerative medicine. EVs are now viewed as a potential cell-free therapy for tissue damage and several diseases. Here we propose EVs as regulators of the aging process, with an important role in tissue regeneration and a raising therapy for age-related diseases.

HIF-1α Regulates Bone Homeostasis and Angiogenesis, Participating in the Occurrence of Bone Metabolic Diseases

In the physiological condition, the skeletal system's bone resorption and formation are in dynamic balance, called bone homeostasis. However, bone homeostasis is destroyed under pathological conditions, leading to the occurrence of bone metabolism diseases. The expression of hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) is regulated by oxygen concentration. It affects energy metabolism, which plays a vital role in preventing bone metabolic diseases. This review focuses on the HIF-1α pathway and describes in detail the possible mechanism of its involvement in the regulation of bone homeostasis and angiogenesis, as well as the current experimental studies on the use of HIF-1α in the prevention of bone metabolic diseases. HIF-1α/RANKL/Notch1 pathway bidirectionally regulates the differentiation of macrophages into osteoclasts under different conditions. In addition, HIF-1α is also regulated by many factors, including hypoxia, cofactor activity, non-coding RNA, trace elements, etc. As a pivotal pathway for coupling angiogenesis and osteogenesis, HIF-1α has been widely studied in bone metabolic diseases such as bone defect, osteoporosis, osteonecrosis of the femoral head, fracture, and nonunion. The wide application of biomaterials in bone metabolism also provides a reasonable basis for the experimental study of HIF-1α in preventing bone metabolic diseases.

Mesenchymal Stromal Cell-Derived Extracellular Vesicles in Wound Healing

The well-orchestrated process of wound healing may be negatively impacted from interrupted or incomplete tissue regenerative processes. The healing potential is further compromised in patients with diabetes mellitus, chronic venous insufficiency, critical limb ischemia, and immunocompromised conditions, with a high health care burden and expenditure. Stem cell-based therapy has shown promising results in clinical studies. Mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes (MSC Exos) may favorably impact intercellular signaling and immunomodulation, promoting neoangiogenesis, collagen synthesis, and neoepithelization. This article gives an outline of the biogenesis and mechanism of extracellular vesicles (EVs), particularly exosomes, in the process of tissue regeneration and discusses the use of preconditioned exosomes, platelet-rich plasma-derived exosomes, and engineered exosomes in three-dimensional bioscaffolds such as hydrogels (collagen and chitosan) to prolong the contact time of exosomes at the recipient site within the target tissue. An appropriate antibiotic therapy based on culture-specific guidance coupled with the knowledge of biopolymers helps to fabricate nanotherapeutic materials loaded with MSC Exos to effectively deliver drugs locally and promote novel approaches for the management of chronic wounds.

Small extracellular vesicles from young adipose-derived stem cells prevent frailty, improve health span, and decrease epigenetic age in old mice

Aging is associated with an increased risk of frailty, disability, and mortality. Strategies to delay the degenerative changes associated with aging and frailty are particularly interesting. We treated old animals with small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) derived from adipose mesenchymal stem cells (ADSCs) of young animals, and we found an improvement in several parameters usually altered with aging, such as motor coordination, grip strength, fatigue resistance, fur regeneration, and renal function, as well as an important decrease in frailty. ADSC-sEVs induced proregenerative effects and a decrease in oxidative stress, inflammation, and senescence markers in muscle and kidney. Moreover, predicted epigenetic age was lower in tissues of old mice treated with ADSC-sEVs and their metabolome changed to a youth-like pattern. Last, we gained some insight into the microRNAs contained in sEVs that might be responsible for the observed effects. We propose that young sEV treatment can promote healthy aging.

Potential Methods of Targeting Cellular Aging Hallmarks to Reverse Osteoarthritic Phenotype of Chondrocytes

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a chronic degenerative joint disease that causes pain, physical disability, and life quality impairment. The pathophysiology of OA remains largely unclear, and currently no FDA-approved disease-modifying OA drugs (DMOADs) are available. As has been acknowledged, aging is the primary independent risk factor for OA, but the mechanisms underlying such a connection are not fully understood. In this review, we first revisit the changes in OA chondrocytes from the perspective of cellular hallmarks of aging. It is concluded that OA chondrocytes share many alterations similar to cellular aging. Next, based on the findings from studies on other cell types and diseases, we propose methods that can potentially reverse osteoarthritic phenotype of chondrocytes back to a healthier state. Lastly, current challenges and future perspectives are summarized.

A novel hypoxic lncRNA, HRL-SC, promotes the proliferation and migration of human dental pulp stem cells through the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway

Background

Human dental pulp stem cells (hDPSCs) are critical for pulp generation. hDPSCs proliferate faster under hypoxia, but the mechanism by which long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) regulates this process is not fully understood.

Methods

Novel lncRNAs were obtained by reanalysis of transcriptome datasets from RNA-Seq under hypoxia compared with normoxia, and a differential expression analysis of target genes was performed. Bioinformatics analyses, including gene ontology analysis, Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway analysis and gene set enrichment analysis, were used to understand the function of key novel lncRNAs. hDPSCs were isolated from dental pulp tissue. EdU and scratch wound healing assays were used to detect the proliferation and migration of hDPSCs. qRT-PCR was used to detect changes in the RNA expression of selected genes. RNA fluorescence in situ hybridization, small interfering RNA, qRT-PCR and Western blot analysis were used to explore the function of key novel lncRNAs.

Results

We identified 496 novel lncRNAs in hDPSCs under hypoxia, including 45 differentially expressed novel lncRNAs. Of these, we focused on a key novel lncRNA, which we designated HRL-SC (hypoxia-responsive lncRNA in stem cells). Functional annotation revealed that HRL-SC was associated with hypoxic conditions and the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway. HRL-SC was mainly located in the cytoplasm of hDPSCs and had stable high expression under hypoxia. Knockdown of HRL-SC inhibited the proliferation and migration of hDPSCs and the expression levels of PI3K/AKT-related marker proteins. Furthermore, the AKT activator SC79 partially offset the inhibitory effect caused by the knockdown, indicating that HRL-SC promoted hDPSCs through the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway.

Conclusions

Hypoxia-responsive lncRNA HRL-SC promotes the proliferation and migration of hDPSCs through the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway, and this understanding may facilitate the regenerative application of hDPSCs.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13287-022-02970-5.

Recent Approaches to Determine Static and Dynamic Redox State-Related Parameters

Oxidative stress refers to an imbalance between oxidant and antioxidant molecules, which is usually associated with oxidative damage to biomolecules and mitochondrial malfunction. Redox state-related parameters include (1) the direct measurement of ROS, (2) the assessment of the antioxidant defense status, and (3) the analysis of the resulting oxidative damage to molecules. Directly measuring ROS appears to be the preferred method among scientists, but most ROS are extremely unstable and difficult to measure. The processes of determining both the oxidative damage to biomolecules and the antioxidant system status, although both are indirect approaches, provide a reliable method to measure oxidative stress on a given sample. Recently, the Seahorse XF and the Oroboros O2k systems have provided new insights into the redox state from a more dynamic point of view. These techniques assess mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation function and bioenergetics on isolated mitochondria, cultured cells, or specific tissues such as permeabilized fibers. This review describes a range of methodologies to measure redox state-related parameters, their strengths, and their limitations. In conclusion, all these techniques are valid and none of them can be replaced by another. Indeed, they have the potential to complement each other for a complete evaluation of the redox state of a given sample.

Extracellular Vesicles in Redox Signaling and Metabolic Regulation in Chronic Kidney Disease

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a world health problem increasing dramatically. The onset of CKD is driven by several mechanisms; among them, metabolic reprogramming and changes in redox signaling play critical roles in the advancement of inflammation and the subsequent fibrosis, common pathologies observed in all forms of CKD. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are cell-derived membrane packages strongly associated with cell-cell communication since they transfer several biomolecules that serve as mediators in redox signaling and metabolic reprogramming in the recipient cells. Recent studies suggest that EVs, especially exosomes, the smallest subtype of EVs, play a fundamental role in spreading renal injury in CKD. Therefore, this review summarizes the current information about EVs and their cargos’ participation in metabolic reprogramming and mitochondrial impairment in CKD and their role in redox signaling changes. Finally, we analyze the effects of these EV-induced changes in the amplification of inflammatory and fibrotic processes in the progression of CKD. Furthermore, the data suggest that the identification of the signaling pathways involved in the release of EVs and their cargo under pathological renal conditions can allow the identification of new possible targets of injury spread, with the goal of preventing CKD progression.

Red Blood Cell Extracellular Vesicle-Based Drug Delivery: Challenges and Opportunities

Recently, red blood cell-derived extracellular vesicles (RBCEVs) have attracted attention for clinical applications because of their safety and biocompatibility. RBCEVs can escape macrophages through the binding of CD47 to inhibitory receptor signal regulatory protein α. Furthermore, genetic materials such as siRNA, miRNA, mRNA, or single-stranded RNA can be encapsulated within RBCEVs and then released into target cells for precise treatment. However, their side effects, half-lives, target cell specificity, and limited large-scale production under good manufacturing practice remain challenging. In this review, we summarized the biogenesis and composition of RBCEVs, discussed the advantages and disadvantages of RBCEVs for drug delivery compared with synthetic nanovesicles and non-red blood cell-derived EVs, and provided perspectives for overcoming current limitations to the use of RBCEVs for clinical applications.

Dental pulp stem cell-derived small extracellular vesicle in irradiation-induced senescence

Small extracellular vesicles (sEV) facilitate signaling molecule transfer among cells. We examined the therapeutic efficacy of human dental pulp stem cell-derived sEV (hDPSC-sEV) against cellular senescence in an irradiated-submandibular gland mouse model. Seven-week-old mice were exposed to 25 Gy radiation and randomly assigned to control, phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), or hDPSC-sEV groups. At 18 days post-irradiation, saliva production was measured; histological and reverse transcription-quantitative PCR analyses of the submandibular glands were performed. The salivary flow rate did not differ significantly between the PBS and hDPSC-sEV groups. AQP5-expressing acinar cell numbers and AQP5 expression levels in the submandibular glands were higher in the hDPSC-sEV group than in the other groups. Furthermore, compared with non-irradiated mice, mice in the 25 Gy + PBS group showed a high senescence-associated-β-galactosidase-positive cell number and upregulated senescence-related gene (p16^INK4a, p19^Arf, p21) and senescence-associated secretory phenotypic factor (MMP3, IL-6, PAI-1, NF-κB, and TGF-β) expression, all of which were downregulated in the hDPSC-sEV group. Superoxide dismutase levels were lower in the PBS group than in the hDPSC-sEV group. In summary, hDPSC-sEV reduced inflammatory cytokine and senescence-related gene expression and reversed oxidative stress in submandibular cells, thereby preventing irradiation-induced cellular senescence. Based on these results, we hope to contribute to the development of innovative treatment methods for salivary gland dysfunction that develops after radiotherapy for head and neck cancer.

Roles of extracellular vesicles in the aging microenvironment and age-related diseases

Cellular senescence is a persistently hypoproliferative state with diverse stressors in a specific aging microenvironment. Senescent cells have a double-edged sword effect: they can be physiologically beneficial for tissue repair, organ growth, and body homeostasis, and they can be pathologically harmful in age-related diseases. Among the hallmarks of senescence, the SASP, especially SASP-related extracellular vesicle (EV) signalling, plays the leading role in aging transmission via paracrine and endocrine mechanisms. EVs are successful in intercellular and interorgan communication in the aging microenvironment and age-related diseases. They have detrimental effects on downstream targets at the levels of immunity, inflammation, gene expression, and metabolism. Furthermore, EVs obtained from different donors are also promising materials and tools for antiaging treatments and are used for regeneration and rejuvenation in cell-free systems. Here, we describe the characteristics of cellular senescence and the aging microenvironment, concentrating on the production and function of EVs in age-related diseases, and provide new ideas for antiaging therapy with EVs.

Study on the Mechanism of Capillary Leakage Caused by Hypoxia-Inducible Factor-1α through Inducing High Expression of Matrix Metalloproteinase-9

Purposes

This study mainly explored the mechanism of capillary leakage caused by hypoxia-inducible factor-1α through inducing high expression of matrix metalloproteinase-9. Method. We established a monolayer endothelial cell model by culturing human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) in vitro, used tumor necrosis factor (TNFα) and HIF-1α inhibitor 2-methoxyestradiol (2ME2) to act on HUVEC, and at the same time constructed siRNA-transfected HUVEC to interfere with the expression of HIF-1α. The permeability of monolayer endothelial cells was measured by transwell chamber method, the concentration of MMP-9 in the supernatant was measured by ELISA method, the expression of key molecules related to permeability (HIF- 1α, MMP-9, claudin-5, and ZO-1) was measured by RT-PCR and Western blot method, and the localization and expression of claudin-5 and ZO-1 were measured by immunofluorescence method. We searched for 7 HIF-1α hypoxia response elements within 4000 bp before the transcription start site in the MMP-9 promoter region, constructed the MMP-9 promoter-luciferase reporter gene recombinant plasmid, transfected and stimulated HUVEC with TNFα, and detected the effect of 7 hypoxia response element plasmids on the transcription activity of MMP-9 promoter.

Results

Under the action of TNFα, the permeability of monolayer endothelial cells increased, and the concentration of MMP-9 in the cell supernatant increased. 2ME2 and HIF-1α-siRNA transfection can improve the above situation (P < 0.05). 2ME2 and HIF-1α-siRNA transfection can inhibit the high expression of HIF-1α and MMP-9 caused by TNFα, thereby increasing the expression of claudin-5 and ZO-1 (P < 0.05). 2ME2 and HIF-1α-siRNA transfection can reduce the inhibition of TNFα on the expression of cell membrane protein claudin-5 and tight junction protein ZO-1. Element 1, element 5, and element 7 are the sites where HIF-1α interacts with MMP-9 at the transcription level.

Conclusion

This study shows that HIF-1α can increase the permeability of monolayer epithelial cells by inducing the high expression of MMP-9, leading to capillary leakage. Its target is at the -3798 bp, -1878 bp, and -1489 bp points of the transcription initiation site in the MMP-9 promoter region.

Extracellular Vesicles as Therapeutic Tools for the Treatment of Chronic Wounds

Chronic wounds develop when the orderly process of cutaneous wound healing is delayed or disrupted. Development of a chronic wound is associated with significant morbidity and financial burden to the individual and health-care system. Therefore, new therapeutic modalities are needed to address this serious condition. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) promote skin repair, but their clinical use has been limited due to technical challenges. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are particles released by cells that carry bioactive molecules (lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids) and regulate intercellular communication. EVs (exosomes, microvesicles, and apoptotic bodies) mediate key therapeutic effects of MSCs. In this review we examine the experimental data establishing a role for EVs in wound healing. Then, we explore techniques for designing EVs to function as a targeted drug delivery system and how EVs can be incorporated into biomaterials to produce a personalized wound dressing. Finally, we discuss the status of clinically deploying EVs as a therapeutic agent in wound care.

miR-302 Attenuates Mutant Huntingtin-Induced Cytotoxicity through Restoration of Autophagy and Insulin Sensitivity

Huntington’s disease (HD) is an autosomal-dominant brain disorder caused by mutant huntingtin (mHtt). Although the detailed mechanisms remain unclear, the mutational expansion of polyglutamine in mHtt is proposed to induce protein aggregates and neuronal toxicity. Previous studies have shown that the decreased insulin sensitivity is closely related to mHtt-associated impairments in HD patients. However, how mHtt interferes with insulin signaling in neurons is still unknown. In the present study, we used a HD cell model to demonstrate that the miR-302 cluster, an embryonic stem cell-specific polycistronic miRNA, is significantly downregulated in mHtt-Q74-overexpressing neuronal cells. On the contrary, restoration of miR-302 cluster was shown to attenuate mHtt-induced cytotoxicity by improving insulin sensitivity, leading to a reduction of mHtt aggregates through the enhancement of autophagy. In addition, miR-302 also promoted mitophagy and stimulated Sirt1/AMPK-PGC1α pathway thereby preserving mitochondrial function. Taken together, these results highlight the potential role of miR-302 cluster in neuronal cells, and provide a novel mechanism for mHtt-impaired insulin signaling in the pathogenesis of HD.

Embryonic stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles promote the recovery of kidney injury

BACKGROUND

Embryonic stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles (ESC-EVs) possess therapeutic potential for a variety of diseases and are considered as an alternative of ES cells. Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a common acute and severe disease in clinical practice, which seriously threatens human life and health. However, the roles and mechanisms of ESC-EVs on AKI remain unclear.

METHODS

In this study, we evaluated the effects of ESC-EVs on physiological repair and pathological repair using murine ischemia-reperfusion injury-induced AKI model, the potential mechanisms of which were next investigated. EVs were isolated from ESCs and EVs derived from mouse fibroblasts as therapeutic controls. We then investigated whether ESC-EVs can restore the structure and function of the damaged kidney by promoting physiological repair and inhibiting the pathological repair process after AKI in vivo and in vitro.

RESULTS

We found that ESC-EVs significantly promoted the recovery of the structure and function of the damaged kidney. ESC-EVs increased the proliferation of renal tubular epithelial cells, facilitated renal angiogenesis, inhibited the progression of renal fibrosis, and rescued DNA damage caused by ischemia and reperfusion after AKI. Finally, we found that ESC-EVs play a therapeutic effect by activating Sox9+ cells.

CONCLUSIONS

ESC-EVs significantly promote the physiological repair and inhibit the pathological repair after AKI, enabling restoration of the structure and function of the damaged kidney. This strategy might emerge as a novel therapeutic strategy for ESC clinical application.

NADPH Oxidases: Redox Regulators of Stem Cell Fate and Function

One of the major sources of reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated within stem cells is the nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase family of enzymes (NOXs), which are critical determinants of the redox state beside antioxidant defense mechanisms. This balance is involved in another one that regulates stem cell fate: indeed, self-renewal, proliferation, and differentiation are decisive steps for stem cells during embryo development, adult tissue renovation, and cell therapy application. Ex vivo culture-expanded stem cells are being investigated for tissue repair and immune modulation, but events such as aging, senescence, and oxidative stress reduce their ex vivo proliferation, which is crucial for their clinical applications. Here, we review the role of NOX-derived ROS in stem cell biology and functions, focusing on positive and negative effects triggered by the activity of different NOX isoforms. We report recent findings on downstream molecular targets of NOX-ROS signaling that can modulate stem cell homeostasis and lineage commitment and discuss the implications in ex vivo expansion and in vivo engraftment, function, and longevity. This review highlights the role of NOX as a pivotal regulator of several stem cell populations, and we conclude that these aspects have important implications in the clinical utility of stem cells, but further studies on the effects of pharmacological modulation of NOX in human stem cells are imperative.

Importance of stem cell culture conditions for their derived extracellular vesicles therapeutic effect

Stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) could be enhanced by modifying specific in vitro parameters when culturing their originating stem cells. Controlling stem cell growth conditions with physical properties, oxygen tension and media preconditioning with soluble factors may influence EVs biogenesis and EVs biological function as well. Unfortunately, many misconceptions and methodological issues have hampered the progress in understanding the biological properties of EVs. In this review we will first discuss the major concerns involved in a suitable EVs production from stem cell culture. Then, we will describe the current techniques for EV isolation, focusing on their advantages and disadvantages, as well as their impact on EVs yield, recovery and functionality. Standardization of the methodology is a prerequisite to compare, to validate and to improve the reliability and credibility of all the different findings reported for the development of EV-based therapeutics.

The effect of extracellular vesicles on the regulation of mitochondria under hypoxia

Mitochondria are indispensable organelles for maintaining cell energy metabolism, and also are necessary to retain cell biological function by transmitting information as signal organelles. Hypoxia, one of the important cellular stresses, can directly regulates mitochondrial metabolites and mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mROS), which affects the nuclear gene expression through mitochondrial retrograde signal pathways, and also promotes the delivery of signal components into cytoplasm, causing cellular injury. In addition, mitochondria can also trigger adaptive mechanisms to maintain mitochondrial function in response to hypoxia. Extracellular vesicles (EVs), as a medium of information transmission between cells, can change the biological effects of receptor cells by the release of cargo, including nucleic acids, proteins, lipids, mitochondria, and their compositions. The secretion of EVs increases in cells under hypoxia, which indirectly changes the mitochondrial function through the uptake of contents by the receptor cells. In this review, we focus on the mitochondrial regulation indirectly through EVs under hypoxia, and the possible mechanisms that EVs cause the changes in mitochondrial function. Finally, we discuss the significance of this EV-mitochondria axis in hypoxic diseases.