Neuroprotective Effects of the Lithium Salt of a Novel JNK Inhibitor in an Animal Model of Cerebral Ischemia–Reperfusion

Tibetan golden acupuncture inhibits JNK/caspase-3 signaling pathway to alleviate neuronal apoptosis in cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury

Background

Apoptosis induced by cerebral ischemia-reperfusion is one of the key pathological processes of nerve injury. Tibetan golden acupuncture (GA) is a common treatment for ischemic brain injury in Tibetan. The aim of this study was to explore whether GA prevents cerebral ischemia-reperfusion-induced apoptosis in mice by blocking the JNK/caspase-3 pathway.

Methods

In experiment I, 36 mice were randomly divided into a Sham group, CI/RI group, CI/RI + GA group. Morris water maze tests, TdT-mediated dUTP-biotin nick end labeling (TUNEL) staining and flow cytometry (FCM) were used to evaluate the effect of the GA intervention on CI/RI. In experiment II, 30 mice were randomly divided into a Sham group, CI/RI group, CI/RI + GA group, CI/RI + SP group and CI/RI + SP + EA group. Western blotting was used to detect protein expression of key factors in the JNK signaling pathway in the hippocampus.

Results

After 7 and 14 interventions, behavioral evaluations in CI/RI + GA group was significantly different from those in CI/RI groups (p < 0.01), pathological injury and apoptosis were significantly reduced (p < 0.01). Compared with CI/RI group, the expression of P-JNK/JNK, Cleaved caspase-3/caspase-3, Bax, and Bad proteins in CI/RI + GA group, CI/RI + SP and CI/RI + SP + GA groups were significantly decreased (p < 0.01). The expression of B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) was significantly increased (p < 0.01, p < 0.05).

Conclusions

GA can restore neurological dysfunction and inhibit hippocampal neuronal apoptosis in CI/RI mice, at least partially through inhibition of the JNK/Caspase-3 signaling pathway and regulation of apoptosis signals.

Elucidating the pivotal molecular mechanisms, therapeutic and neuroprotective effects of lithium in traumatic brain injury

INTRODUCTION

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) refers to damage to brain tissue by mechanical or blunt force via trauma. TBI is often associated with impaired cognitive abilities, like difficulties in memory, learning, attention, and other higher brain functions, that typically remain for years after the injury. Lithium is an elementary light metal that is only utilized in salt form due to its high intrinsic reactivity. This current review discusses the molecular mechanisms and therapeutic and neuroprotective effects of lithium in TBI.

METHOD

The "Boolean logic" was used to search for articles on the subject matter in PubMed and PubMed Central, as well as Google Scholar.

RESULTS

Lithium's therapeutic action is extremely complex, involving multiple effects on gene secretion, neurotransmitter or receptor-mediated signaling, signal transduction processes, circadian modulation, as well as ion transport. Lithium is able to normalize multiple short- as well as long-term modifications in neuronal circuits that ultimately result in disparity in cortical excitation and inhibition activated by TBI. Also, lithium levels are more distinct in the hippocampus, thalamus, neo-cortex, olfactory bulb, amygdala as well as the gray matter of the cerebellum following treatment of TBI.

CONCLUSION

Lithium attenuates neuroinflammation and neuronal toxicity as well as protects the brain from edema, hippocampal neurodegeneration, loss of hemispheric tissues, and enhanced memory as well as spatial learning after TBI.

Dose proportionality and bioavailability of quinoxaline-based JNK inhibitor after single oral and intravenous administration in rats

The dose proportionality and bioavailability of the potential anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective JNK inhibitor 11H-indeno[1,2-b]quinoxalin-11-one oxime (IQ-1) were evaluated by comparing pharmacokinetic parameters after single oral (25, 50 and 100 mg/kg) and intravenous (1 mg/kg) IQ-1 administration in rats.IQ-1 and its major metabolite ketone 11H-indeno[1,2-b]quinoxalin-11-one (IQ-18) were isolated from plasma samples by liquid-liquid extraction. IQ-1 (E-isomer) and IQ-18 were simultaneously quantified in plasma by the validated method of liquid chromatography with triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS).The absolute bioavailability of IQ-1 was < 1.5%. Cmax values were 24.72 ± 4.30, 25.66 ± 7.11 and 37.61 ± 3.53 ng/mL after single oral administration of IQ-1 at doses of 25, 50 and 100 mg/kg, respectively. IQ-1 exhibited dose proportionality at 50-100 mg/kg dose levels, whereas its pharmacokinetics was not dose proportional over the range of 25-50 mg/kg. IQ-18 demonstrated the invariance of the dose-normalized Cmax.In this study we systematically elucidated the absorption characteristics of IQ-1 in rat gastrointestinal tract and provided better understanding of IQ-1 pharmacology for the future development of a new formulations and therapeutic optimisation.

Pharmacokinetics of a New Neuroprotector - Indenoquinoxalinone Derivative after Intravenous Administration in Rabbits and Rats

The specific JNK inhibitor and NO donor 11H-indeno[1,2-b]quinoxalin-11-one oxime (IQ-1) demonstrated pronounced neuroprotective properties in an in vivo model of ischemic stroke in rats. The pharmacokinetic behavior of IQ-1 was studied in two animal species (rats, rabbits) after intravenous administration in a dose of 1 mg/kg. IQ-1 concentrations in venous blood plasma were measured by the liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method. The pharmacokinetics of IQ-1 was adequately described by the two-compartmental model. The calculated C0 for IQ-1 in rabbit and rat plasma were 2239.83±1229.55 and 1552.50±182.23 ng/ml, respectively. Two animal species are characterized by extensive tissue distribution of IQ-1 (Vss exceeded the total body water in rabbits and rats by 3.6 and 5.6 times, respectively) and high clearance values (88-94% of hepatic blood flow).

Neuroprotective Effects of Tryptanthrin-6-Oxime in a Rat Model of Transient Focal Cerebral Ischemia

The activation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) plays an important role in stroke outcomes. Tryptanthrin-6-oxime (TRYP-Ox) is reported to have high affinity for JNK and anti-inflammatory activity and may be of interest as a promising neuroprotective agent. The aim of this study was to investigate the neuroprotective effects of TRYP-Ox in a rat model of transient focal cerebral ischemia (FCI), which involved intraluminal occlusion of the left middle cerebral artery (MCA) for 1 h. Animals in the experimental group were administered intraperitoneal injections of TRYP-Ox 30 min before reperfusion and 23 and 47 h after FCI. Neurological status was assessed 4, 24, and 48 h following FCI onset. Treatment with 5 and 10 mg/kg of TRYP-Ox decreased mean scores of neurological deficits by 35-49 and 46-67% at 24 and 48 h, respectively. At these doses, TRYP-Ox decreased the infarction size by 28-31% at 48 h after FCI. TRYP-Ox (10 mg/kg) reduced the content of interleukin (IL) 1β and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) in the ischemic core area of the MCA region by 33% and 38%, respectively, and attenuated cerebral edema by 11% in the left hemisphere, which was affected by infarction, and by 6% in the right, contralateral hemisphere 24 h after FCI. TRYP-Ox reduced c-Jun phosphorylation in the MCA pool at 1 h after reperfusion. TRYP-Ox was predicted to have high blood-brain barrier permeability using various calculated descriptors and binary classification trees. Indeed, reactive oxidant production was significantly lower in the brain homogenates from rats treated with TRYP-Ox versus that in control animals. Our data suggest that the neuroprotective activity of TRYP-Ox may be due to the ability of this compound to inhibit JNK and exhibit anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity. Thus, TRYP-Ox may be considered a promising neuroprotective agent that potentially could be used for the development of new treatment strategies in cerebral ischemia.

Experimental and Computational Investigation of the Oxime Bond Stereochemistry in c-Jun N-terminal Kinase 3 Inhibitors 11H-Indeno[1,2-b]quinoxalin-11-one Oxime and Tryptanthrin-6-oxime

11H-Indeno[1,2-b]quinoxalin-11-one oxime (IQ-1) and tryptanthrin-6-oxime are potent c-Jun N-terminal kinase 3 (JNK-3) inhibitors demonstrating neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic activity. However, the stereochemical configuration of the oxime carbon-nitrogen double bond (E- or Z-) in these compounds was so far unknown. In this contribution, we report the results of the determination of the double bond configuration in the solid state by single crystal X-ray diffraction and in solution by 1D and 2D NMR techniques and DFT calculations. It was found that both in the solid state and in solution, IQ-1 adopts the E-configuration stabilized by intermolecular hydrogen bonds, in contrast to previously assumed Z-configuration that could be stabilized only by an intramolecular hydrogen bond.

Quantification of a promising JNK inhibitor and nitrovasodilator IQ-1 and its major metabolite in rat plasma by LC-MS/MS

Background: IQ-1 is a promising c-Jun-N-terminal kinase inhibitor and nitrovasodilator. An LC-MS/MS method was validated to determine IQ-1 isomers and major metabolite IQ-18 in rat plasma. Materials & methods: The analytes were extracted using ethyl acetate. The chromatographic separation was performed on a C8 column (150 × 4.6 mm, 5 μm) under acetonitrile-water (5 mM ammonium formate buffer, pH 2.93) gradient elution. Multiple reaction monitoring was used for MS/MS detection in the positive ion mode. Results: The method was fully validated over the range of 0.1-400 ng/ml (Z-isomer), 0.9-3600 ng/ml (E-isomer), 5.0-4000 (IQ-18). Conclusion: This method has been successfully applied to pharmacokinetic studies of IQ-1 and IQ-18 in rats after a single oral dose of IQ-1 (50 mg/kg).

Lithium Biological Action Mechanisms after Ischemic Stroke

Lithium is a source of great scientific interest because although it has such a simple structure, relatively easy-to-analyze chemistry, and well-established physical properties, the plethora of effects on biological systems—which influence numerous cellular and molecular processes through not entirely explained mechanisms of action—generate a mystery that modern science is still trying to decipher. Lithium has multiple effects on neurotransmitter-mediated receptor signaling, ion transport, signaling cascades, hormonal regulation, circadian rhythm, and gene expression. The biochemical mechanisms of lithium action appear to be multifactorial and interrelated with the functioning of several enzymes, hormones, vitamins, and growth and transformation factors. The widespread and chaotic marketing of lithium salts in potions and mineral waters, always at inadequate concentrations for various diseases, has contributed to the general disillusionment with empirical medical hypotheses about the therapeutic role of lithium. Lithium salts were first used therapeutically in 1850 to relieve the symptoms of gout, rheumatism, and kidney stones. In 1949, Cade was credited with discovering the sedative effect of lithium salts in the state of manic agitation, but frequent cases of intoxication accompanied the therapy. In the 1960s, lithium was shown to prevent manic and also depressive recurrences. This prophylactic effect was first demonstrated in an open-label study using the “mirror” method and was later (after 1970) confirmed by several placebo-controlled double-blind studies. Lithium prophylaxis was similarly effective in bipolar and also unipolar patients. In 1967, the therapeutic value of lithemia was determined, included in the range of 0.5–1.5 mEq/L. Recently, new therapeutic perspectives on lithium are connected with improved neurological outcomes after ischemic stroke. The effects of lithium on the development and maintenance of neuroprotection can be divided into two categories: short-term effects and long-term effects. Unfortunately, the existing studies do not fully explain the lithium biological action mechanisms after ischemic stroke.