Knocking-Down CD147/EMMPRIN Expression in CT26 Colon Carcinoma Forces the Cells into Cellular and Angiogenic Dormancy That Can Be Reversed by Interactions with Macrophages

Dormancy in Metastatic Colorectal Cancer: Tissue Engineering Opportunities for In Vitro Modeling

Colorectal cancer (CRC) recurs at a striking rate, specifically in patients with liver metastasis. Dormant CRC cells disseminated following initial primary tumor resection or treatment often resurface years later to form aggressive, therapy-resistant tumors that result in high patient mortality. Routine imaging-based screenings often fail to detect dormant cancer cell clusters, and there are no overt symptomatic presentations, making dormant CRC a major clinical challenge to diagnose and treat. Tissue engineering approaches are ideally suited to model dormant cancer cells and enable the discovery of therapeutic vulnerabilities or unique mechanistic dependencies of dormant CRC. Emerging evidence suggests that tissue-engineered approaches have been successfully used to model dormant breast and lung cancer. With CRC responsible for the second most cancer-related deaths worldwide and CRC patients commonly experiencing recurrence, it is essential to expand dormancy models to understand this phenomenon in the context of CRC. Most published in vitro models of CRC dormancy simplify the complex tumor microenvironment with two-dimensional culture systems to elucidate dormancy-driving mechanisms. Building on this foundation, future research should apply tissue engineering methods to this growing field to generate competent three-dimensional models and increase mechanistic knowledge. This review summarizes the current state of in vitro CRC dormancy models, highlighting the techniques utilized to give rise to dormant CRC cells: nutrient depletion, anticancer drugs, physical extracellular matrix interactions, and genetic manipulation. The metrics used to validate dormancy within each model are also consolidated to demonstrate the lack of established standards and the ambiguity around comparing studies that have been validated differently. The methods of these studies are organized in this review to increase comprehensibility and identify needs and opportunities for future bioengineered in vitro models to address dormancy-driven mortality in patients with CRC liver metastasis. Impact Statement Dormant cancer drives high patient mortality, especially in metastatic colorectal cancer, owing to the clinical inability to identify dormant cells prior to their overt recurrence. Lacking clinical insights, in vitro modeling for mechanistic and therapeutic discovery is hindered. Here, we review models and methods of inducing colorectal cancer dormancy with the goal of consolidating findings for reference. We also highlight the need for advanced, tissue-engineered models to better mimic the organ-specific 3D microenvironment of metastatic colorectal cancer. New models would enable breakthroughs in understanding mechanisms driving dormancy progression and reversal, thereby providing context for therapeutic advances to improve patient survival.

EMMPRIN aggravates angiogenesis and blood-retina barrier injury by regulating matrix metalloproteinases in diabetic retinopathy

Background: Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a microangiopathy resulting from diabetes mellitus. Studies on vitreous samples have shed insights into the etiology of DR and highlighted the role of molecular targets in DR treatment. The present study probed into the role of extracellular matrix metalloproteinase inducer (EMMPRIN) in DR by examining its influence on inflammation, angiogenesis, matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), and blood-retina barrier injury.Methods: After the induction of diabetes in rats through streptozotocin injection, SP-8356 (an inhibitor for EMMPRIN) was administered to rats for silencing EMMPRIN in vivo. Serum and vitreous EMMPRIN levels were assessed by ELISA and western blotting. The concentration and mRNA expression of proinflammatory cytokines in rat vitreous samples were quantified through ELISA or RT-qPCR. Western blotting or RT-qPCR was performed to measure protein or mRNA levels of MMPs, tight junction factors, and angiogenic factors.Results: High EMMPRIN levels were found in both serum and vitreous samples of DR rats. Inhibition of EMMPRIN using SP-8356 ameliorated DR-induced high levels of inflammatory cytokines, MMPs, and angiogenic factors and rescued DR-induced low expression levels of tight junction factors in rat vitreous samples.Conclusions: EMMPRIN accelerates inflammation, angiogenesis and blood-retina barrier injury in DR by regulating MMPs.

Colorectal cancer cell dormancy: An insight into pathways

Cancer cell dormancy (CCD) in colorectal cancer (CRC) poses a significant challenge to effective treatment. In CRC, CCD contributes to tumour recurrence, drug resistance, and amplifying the disease's burden. The molecular mechanisms governing CCD and strategies for eliminating dormant cancer cells remain largely unexplored. Therefore, understanding the molecular mechanisms governing dormancy is crucial for improving patient outcomes and developing targeted therapies. This editorial highlights the complex interplay of signalling pathways and factors involved in colorectal CCD, emphasizing the roles of Hippo/YAP, pluripotent transcription factors such as NANOG, HIF-1α signalling, and Notch signalling pathways. Additionally, ERK/p38α/β/MAPK pathways, AKT signalling pathway, and Extracellular Matrix Metalloproteinase Inducer, along with some potential less explored pathways such as STAT/p53 switch and canonical and non-canonical Wnt and SMAD signalling, are also involved in promoting colorectal CCD. Highlighting their clinical significance, these findings may offer the potential for identifying key dormancy regulator pathways, improving treatment strategies, surmounting drug resistance, and advancing personalized medicine approaches. Moreover, insights into dormancy mechanisms could lead to the development of predictive biomarkers for identifying patients at risk of recurrence and the tailoring of targeted therapies based on individual dormancy profiles. It is essential to conduct further research into these pathways and their modulation to fully comprehend CRC dormancy mechanisms and enhance patient outcomes.

Advances in the molecular regulation mechanism of tumor dormancy and its therapeutic strategy

Tumor dormancy is a stage in the growth and development of malignant cells and is one of the biological characteristics of malignant cells. Complex transitions involving dormant tumor cells between quiescent and proliferative states pose challenges for tumor eradication. This paper explores the biological features and molecular mechanisms of tumor dormancy and highlights emerging therapies. The strategies discussed promise innovative clinical potential against malignant tumors. Understanding the mechanisms of dormancy can help provide valuable insights into the diagnosis and treatment of malignant tumors to advance the fight against this world problem.

EMMPRIN promotes spheroid organization and metastatic formation: comparison between monolayers and spheroids of CT26 colon carcinoma cells

Background

In vitro studies often use two-dimensional (2D) monolayers, but 3D cell organization, such as in spheroids, better mimics the complexity of solid tumors. To metastasize, cancer cells undergo the process of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) to become more invasive and pro-angiogenic, with expression of both epithelial and mesenchymal markers.

Aims

We asked whether EMMPRIN/CD147 contributes to the formation of the 3D spheroid structure, and whether spheroids, which are often used to study proliferation and drug resistance, could better model the EMT process and the metastatic properties of cells, and improve our understanding of the role of EMMPRIN in them.

Methods

We used the parental mouse CT26 colon carcinoma (CT26-WT) cells, and infected them with a lentivirus vector to knock down EMMPRIN expression (CT26-KD cells), or with an empty lentivirus vector (CT26-NC) that served as a negative control. In some cases, we repeated the experiments with the 4T1 or LLC cell lines. We compared the magnitude of change between CT26-KD and CT26-WT/NC cells in different metastatic properties in cells seeded as monolayers or as spheroids formed by the scaffold-free liquid overlay method.

Results

We show that reduced EMMPRIN expression changed the morphology of cells and their spatial organization in both 2D and 3D models. The 3D models more clearly demonstrated how reduced EMMPRIN expression inhibited proliferation and the angiogenic potential, while it enhanced drug resistance, invasiveness, and EMT status, and moreover it enhanced cell dormancy and prevented CT26-KD cells from forming metastatic-like lesions when seeded on basement membrane extract (BME). Most interestingly, this approach enabled us to identify that EMMPRIN and miR-146a-5p form a negative feedback loop, thus identifying a key mechanism for EMMPRIN activities. These results underline EMMPRIN role as a gatekeeper that prevents dormancy, and suggest that EMMPRIN links EMT characteristics to the process of spheroid formation.

Conclusions

Thus, 3D models can help identify mechanisms by which EMMPRIN facilitates tumor and metastasis progression, which might render EMMPRIN as a promising target for anti-metastatic tumor therapy.

Glucose Promotes EMMPRIN/CD147 and the Secretion of Pro-Angiogenic Factors in a Co-Culture System of Endothelial Cells and Monocytes

Vascular complications in Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) patients increase morbidity and mortality. In T2DM, angiogenesis is impaired and can be enhanced or reduced in different tissues ("angiogenic paradox"). The present study aimed to delineate differences between macrovascular and microvascular endothelial cells that might explain this paradox. In a monoculture system of human macrovascular (EaHy926) or microvascular (HMEC-1) endothelial cell lines and a monocytic cell line (U937), high glucose concentrations (25 mmole/L) increased the secretion of the pro-angiogenic factors CD147/EMMPRIN, VEGF, and MMP-9 from both endothelial cells, but not from monocytes. Co-cultures of EaHy926/HMEC-1 with U937 enhanced EMMPRIN and MMP-9 secretion, even in low glucose concentrations (5.5 mmole/L), while in high glucose HMEC-1 co-cultures enhanced all three factors. EMMPRIN mediated these effects, as the addition of anti-EMMPRIN antibody decreased VEGF and MMP-9 secretion, and inhibited the angiogenic potential assessed through the wound assay. Thus, the minor differences between the macrovascular and microvascular endothelial cells cannot explain the angiogenic paradox. Metformin, a widely used drug for the treatment of T2DM, inhibited EMMPRIN, VEGF, and MMP-9 secretion in high glucose concentration, and the AMPK inhibitor dorsomorphin enhanced it. Thus, AMPK regulates EMMPRIN, a key factor in diabetic angiogenesis, suggesting that targeting EMMPRIN may help in the treatment of diabetic vascular complications.

Soluble CD147 regulates endostatin via its effects on the activities of MMP-9 and secreted proteasome 20S

During progression of rheumatoid arthritis (RA), angiogenesis provides oxygen and nutrients for the cells' increased metabolic demands and number. To turn on angiogenesis, pro-angiogenic factors must outweigh anti-angiogenic factors. We have previously shown that CD147/extracellular matrix metalloproteinase inducer (EMMPRIN) can induce the expression of the pro-angiogenic factors vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and matrix metallopeptidase 9 (MMP-9) in a co-culture of the human HT1080 fibrosarcoma and U937 monocytic-like cell lines. However, whether CD147 influences anti-angiogenic factors was not known. We now show that relative to single cultures, the co-culture of these cells not only enhanced pro-angiogenic factors but also decreased the anti-angiogenic factors endostatin and thrombospondin-1 (Tsp-1), generally increasing the angiogenic potential as measured by a wound assay. Using anti-CD147 antibody, CD147 small interfering RNA (siRNA), and recombinant CD147, we demonstrate that CD147 hormetically regulates the generation of endostatin but has no effect on Tsp-1. Since endostatin is cleaved from collagen XVIII (Col18A), we applied different protease inhibitors and established that MMP-9 and proteasome 20S, but not cathepsins, are responsible for endostatin generation. MMP-9 and proteasome 20S collaborate to synergistically enhance endostatin generation, and in a non-cellular system, CD147 enhanced MMP-9 activity and hormetically regulated proteasome 20S activity. Serum samples obtained from RA patients and healthy controls mostly corroborated these findings, indicating clinical relevance. Cumulatively, these findings suggest that secreted CD147 mediates a possibly allosteric effect on MMP-9 and proteasome 20S activities and can serve as a switch that turns angiogenesis on or off, depending on its ambient concentrations in the microenvironment.

Combined Biomarker System Predicts Prognosis in Patients with Metastatic Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Metastatic oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is associated with poor patient prognosis. Metastasis is a complex process involving various proteins, tumor cell alterations, including changes attributable to the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) process, and interactions with the tumor microenvironment (TME). In this study, we investigate a combined protein marker system consisting of connexin 43 (Cx43), EMMPRIN (CD147), E-cadherin, and vimentin, with a focus on their roles in the invasive metastatic progression of OSCC and their potential utility in predicting prognosis.

METHODS

We conducted an immunohistochemical analysis to assess the protein expression profiles of Cx43, EMMPRIN, E-cadherin, and vimentin using tissue samples obtained from 24 OSCC patients. The metastatic process was mapped through different regions of interest (ROIs), including adjacent healthy oral mucosa (OM), center of primary OSCC, invasive front (IF), and local cervical lymph node metastases (LNM). The primary clinical endpoints were disease-free survival (DFS) and overall survival (OS).

RESULTS

Substantial changes in the expression profiles of the different marker proteins were observed among the different ROIs, with all p-values < 0.05, signifying statistical significance. Multivariable Cox regression analysis results showed a significant effect of increased EMMPRIN expression toward the IF on DFS (p = 0.019) and OS (p = 0.023). Furthermore, the combined predictive analysis showed a significant predictive value of the marker system for DFS (p = 0.0017) and OS (p = 0.00044).

CONCLUSIONS

The combined marker system exhibited a significant ability to predict patient prognosis. An increase in EMMPRIN expression toward the IF showed the strongest effect and could be an interesting new antimetastatic therapy approach.