Animal Venoms-Curse or Cure?

Methods matter: Comparison of techniques used for sea anemone venom extraction

The study of cnidarian (coral, sea anemone, and jellyfish) venom provides important evolutionary and ecological insights and unlocks vast opportunities for biodiscovery of novel compounds. The success of the field is dependent on not only the acquisition of sufficient quantities of venom but also the ability to compare venom between species and studies. To date, no direct comparison of the main techniques used to acquire sea anemone venom has been performed to determine the comparability or validity of these methods to yield venom derived from within cnidarian venom apparatus - cnidae. This study aims to compare the venom extracted from a sea anemone via three common methods: isolated cnidae, electrostimulation, and physical manipulation. Using a range of non-targeted proteomic and mass spectrometric techniques, we showed each method yielded distinct differences in both the composition and abundance of components detected for extraction method. Furthermore, few identified components were shared between each of the extraction methods. These results highlight that different venom collection methods yield vastly different results. While further investigation is required, to validate the source of each of the components from within each sample, we argue that sample collection from isolated cnidae is likely to be the most representative of true venom components.

A review on inflammation modulating venom proteins/peptide therapeutics and their delivery strategies: A review

Inflammation is an initial biological reaction that occurs in response to infection caused by foreign pathogens or injury. This process involves a tightly controlled series of signaling events at the molecular and cellular levels, with the ultimate goal of restoring tissue balance and protecting against invading pathogens. Malfunction in the process of inflammation can result in a diverse array of diseases, such as cardiovascular, neurological, and autoimmune disorders. Therefore, the management of inflammation is of utmost importance in modern medicine. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and corticosteroids have long been the mainstays of pharmacological treatment for inflammation, effectively alleviating symptoms in many patients. Recently, toxins and venom, formerly seen as mostly harmful to the human body, have been recognized as possible medicinal substances for treating inflammation. Organisms that are venomous, such as spiders, scorpions, snakes, and certain marine species, have developed a wide range of powerful toxins that can effectively disable or discourage predators. Remarkably, the majority of these poisons and venoms consist of proteins and peptides, which are acknowledged as significant bioactive compounds with medicinal potential. The goal of this review is to investigate the medicinal potential of peptides derived from venoms and their complex mechanism of action in suppressing inflammation. This review also discusses various challenges and future prospects for effective venom delivery.

Structural, biochemical and immunochemical characterization of an acidic phospholipase A2 from Lachesis acrochorda (Viperidae: Crotalinae) venom

Viperids of the genus Lachesis, also known as bushmasters, are capable of injecting great amounts of venom that cause severe envenomation incidents. Since phospholipases type A2 are mainly involved in edema and myonecrosis within the snakebite sites, in this work, the isolation, amino acid sequence and biochemical characterization of the first phospholipase type A2 from the venom of Lachesis acrochorda, named Lacro_PLA2, is described. Lacro_PLA2 is an acidic aspartic 49 calcium-dependent phospholipase A2 with 93% similarity to the L. stenophrys phospholipase. Lacro_PLA2 has a molecular mass of 13,969.7 Da and an experimental isoelectric point around 5.3. A combination of N-terminal Edman degradation and MS/MS spectrometry analyses revealed that Lacro_PLA2 contains 122 residues including 14 cysteines that form 7 disulfide bridges. A predicted 3D model shows a high resemblance to other viperid phospholipases. Nevertheless, immunochemical and phospholipase neutralization tests revealed a notorious level of immunorecognition of the isolated protein by two polyclonal antibodies from viperids from different genus, which suggest that Lacro_PLA2 resembles more to bothropic phospholipases. Lacro_PLA2 also showed significantly high edema activity when was injected into mice; so, it could be an alternative antigen in the development of antibodies against toxins of this group of viperids, seeking to improve commercial polyclonal antivenoms.

Melittin as an Activator of the Autophagy and Unfolded Protein Response Pathways in Colorectal HCT116 Cell Line

Background

The potential anticancer effect of melittin has motivated scientists to find its exact molecular mechanism of action. There are few data on the effect of melittin on the UPR and autophagy as two critical pathways involved in tumorigenesis of colorectal and drug resistance. This study aimed to investigate the effect of melittin on these pathways in the colorectal cancer (CRC) HCT116 cells.

Methods

MTT method was carried out to assess the cytotoxicity of melittin on the HCT116 cell line for 24, 48, and 72 h. After selecting the optimal concentrations and treatment times, the gene expression of autophagy flux markers (LC3-βII and P62) and UPR markers (CHOP and XBP-1s) were determined using qRT-PCR. The protein level of autophagy initiation marker (Beclin1) was also determined by Western blotting.

Results

MTT assay showed a cytotoxic effect of melittin on the HCT116 cells. The increase in LC3-βII and decrease in P62 mRNA expression levels, along with the elevation in the Beclin1 protein level, indicated the stimulatory role of melittin on the autophagy. Melittin also significantly enhanced the CHOP and XBP-1s expressions at mRNA level, suggesting the positive role of the melittin on the UPR activation.

Conclusion

This study shows that UPR and autophagy can potentially be considered as two key signaling pathways in tumorigenesis, which can be targeted by the BV melittin in the HCT116 cells. Further in vivo evaluations are recommended to verify the obtained results.

A secretory system for extracellular production of spider neurotoxin huwentoxin-I in Escherichia coli

Due to their advantages in structural stability and versatility, cysteine-rich peptides, which are secreted from the venom glands of venomous animals, constitute a naturally occurring pharmaceutical arsenal. However, the correct folding of disulfide bonds is a challenging task in the prokaryotic expression system like Escherichia coli due to the reducing environment. Here, a secretory expression plasmid pSE-G1M5-SUMO-HWTX-I for the spider neurotoxin huwentoxin-I (HWTX-I) with three disulfides as a model of cysteine-rich peptides was constructed. By utilizing the signal peptide G1M5, the fusion protein 6 × His-SUMO-HWTX-I was successfully secreted into extracellular medium of BL21(DE3). After enrichment using cation-exchange chromatography and purification utilizing the Ni-NTA column, 6 × His-SUMO-HWTX-I was digested via Ulp1 kinase to release recombinant HWTX-I (rHWTX-I), which was further purified utilizing RP-HPLC. Finally, both impurities with low and high molecular weights were completely removed. The molecular mass of rHWTX-I was identified as being 3750.8 Da, which was identical to natural HWTX-I with three disulfide bridges. Furthermore, by utilizing whole-cell patch clamp, the sodium currents of hNav1.7 could be inhibited by rHWTX-I and the IC50 value was 419 nmol/L.

Effect of honey bee venom on the histological changes of testes and hormonal disturbance in diabetic mice

Background and Aim

Hyperglycemia associated with hyper- or hypo-insulinemia is a hallmark of type 2 diabetes mellitus, which is firmly linked to decreased male infertility. Recently, bee venom (BV) has shown potential health prosperities, including antidiabetic; however, no study focuses on the effect of BV on male fertility in diabetic conditions. This study aimed to detect the effect of BV on histological and hormonal alteration of the testis in diabetic mice.

Materials and Methods

Twenty adult male mice were selected and assigned to four groups: Control, diabetic (150 mg/kg alloxan), BV1 (diabetic + 0.5 mg/kg BV), and BV2 (diabetic + 1 mg/kg BV). After 35 days, the serum levels of glucose, insulin, testosterone, follicular-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, and prolactin were estimated. The histological structure of the testes was also evaluated.

Results

Alloxan-induced hyperglycemia and decreased insulin concentrations were reversed significantly by BV. Furthermore, diabetic mice exhibited various alterations in fertility hormones, while these disturbances were improved considerably to normal concentrations by BV. Similarly, alloxan-induced changes in sperm and testis histological parameters such as motility, viability, abnormality, sperm count, the number and diameter of seminiferous tubules, and the number of Leydig and Sertoli cells were significantly ameliorated to the normal condition by BV. Changes in the number, size, and shape of seminiferous tubules, the number of Leydig and Sertoli cells, and initial degeneration and vacuolization in interstitial cells and spermatogonia and spermatocyte were seen in diabetic mice. All these changes were shifted almost to normal structure by BV.

Conclusion

The BV could be used as an alternative therapeutic agent that manages the markers related to diabetic conditions concomitant with the improved histological structure of the testes and hormone production to accelerate male fertility.