There are conscious and unconscious agendas in the brain and both are important-our will can be conscious as well as unconscious

Identification of anticipatory brain activity in a time discrimination task

The purpose of this study was to investigate anticipatory functions in temporal cognition, identifying the presence of proactive brain processing specifically preceding a time discrimination task. To this aim, two discriminative response tasks (DRTs) were employed: a feature DRT and a temporal (T-DRT). While the F-DRT required discrimination among different geometrical shapes, the T-DRT required discrimination among different stimulus durations. Specifically, this study investigated the role of premotor and prefrontal cortices, and sensory visual areas in preparatory activity preceding time-processing by electroencephalographic methods and analyzing the event-related potential (ERP). ERP components associated with motor (the BP), cognitive (the pN), and sensory readiness (the vN) were analyzed on 21 participants completing the two DRTs. The results support the involvement of all considered brain areas in temporal cognition but extend this information by indicating that these areas can be engaged during the preparation phase before the stimulus is delivered. Furthermore, the T-DRT requires strong anticipatory activity in the PFC likely serving as a moderator of upcoming motor responses. Finally, visual areas were greatly engaged in the early phase of sensory readiness of the T-DRT probably to create top-down low-level representations of imminent events to facilitate perception.

Modulation of anticipatory brain activity as a function of action complexity

Stimulus-driven actions are preceded by preparatory brain activity that can be expressed by event-related potentials (ERP). Literature on this topic has focused on simple actions, such as the finger keypress, finding activity in frontal, parietal, and occipital areas detectable up to two seconds before the stimulus onset. Little is known about the preparatory brain activity when the action complexity increases, and specific brain areas designated to achieve movement integration intervene. This paper aims to identify the time course of preparatory brain activity associated with actions of increasing complexity using ERP analysis and a visuomotor discrimination task. Motor complexity was manipulated by asking nineteen volunteers to provide their response by simply pressing a key or by adding to the keypress arm extensions alone, or in combination with a standing step (involving the whole body). Results showed that these actions of increasing levels of complexity appear to be associated with different patterns of preparatory brain activity in which the found components were differently modulated. The simple keypress was characterized by the prominent motor excitatory preparation in premotor areas paralleled by the largest prefrontal inhibitory/attentional control. Reaching presented a dominant parietal preparation confirming the role of these integration areas in reaching actions toward a goal. Stepping was characterized by localized activity in the bilateral dorsomedial parieto-occipital areas attributable to sensory readiness, for the approaching stimulus. In conclusion, the brain can optimally anticipate any stimulus-driven action modulating the activity in the brain areas specialized in the preparation of that action type.

Enhancing Enneagram Therapy with Contemporary Research on the Conscious and Unconscious Mind

The Enneagram is a personality framework with ancient philosophical underpinnings and cross cultural roots. It outlines nine different pathways of growth for nine different personalities. In recent years, it has started to gain traction in the peer reviewed level of research. Since the Enneagram has a conceptual versatility in addressing various levels and dimensions of the human psyche, it can both contribute and benefit from cross pollinating its insights with the latest scientific research on how the human mind works. One area of research that has the potential for this type of symbiotic partnership with the Enneagram is the study of the interaction between the conscious and unconscious mind. There is rich potential for the multi-leveled integration of contemporary findings on how the conscious and unconscious mind mutually interact with one another along with insights into personality structures from the Enneagram. These integrative insights have clinical implications and create possible directions for future research.

A retrospective study of structural brain lesions identified by magnetic resonance imaging in 114 cats with neurological signs

Background and Aim

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has been widely used as a non-invasive modality to evaluate neurological organ structures. However, brain MRI studies in cats with neurological signs are limited. This study evaluated the association between patient characteristics, neurological signs, and brain lesion locations identified by MRI. Blood profiles of cats with presumptive inflammatory and structural brain lesions were also determined.

Materials and Methods

Medical records of 114 cats that underwent brain MRI were retrospectively reviewed. Cats were categorized into five groups based on the location of their lesion: Cerebrum, brainstem, cerebellum, multifocal, and non-structural. Patient characteristics, neurological signs, and hematological profiles were obtained from their medical records. Disease classification was categorized based on their etiologies. Associations were determined using Fisher's exact test. Blood parameters were compared using the Kruskal-Wallis test.

Results

A total of 114 cats met the inclusion criteria. Lesions were identified in the cerebrum (21.1%), brainstem (8.8%), cerebellum (6.1%), multifocal (39.5%), and non-structural (24.6%) of the cats. Common neurological signs included seizure activity (56.1%), cerebellar signs (41.2%), and anisocoria (25.4%). The most common brain abnormality was inflammation (40.4%). There was no significant difference in hematological profiles between cats with presumptive inflammatory and non-inflammatory brain lesions. Neutrophils, platelets, total protein, and globulin concentrations were higher in cats with structural brain lesions.

Conclusion

The most common neurological signs and brain disease category were seizure activity and inflammation, respectively. However, the hematological profile did not predict inflammatory and structural brain lesions.

Psychological Trauma in the Context of Intimate Partner Violence: A Concept Analysis

A comprehensive understanding of psychological trauma in the context of intimate partner violence (IPV) is relevant for nurses and other healthcare providers to provide better care for individuals and families confronting this issue. A concept analysis based on Walker and Avant was conducted to fully understand this concept and its impact on physical and mental health. This concept analysis demonstrates that psychological trauma in the IPV context is an intricate multi-faceted concept that can have a significant long-term effect on individuals who have experienced IPV. The concept's attributes, antecedents, and consequences identified in this concept analysis will contribute to guiding practice, research, education, and policy development aimed to address the trauma affecting individuals and families in the context of IPV.

Motor Action Execution in Reaction-Time Movements: Magnetoencephalographic Study

OBJECTIVE

Reaction-time movements are internally planned in the brain. Presumably, proactive control in reaction-time movements appears as an inhibitory phase preceding movement execution. We identified the brain activity of reaction-time movements in close proximity to movement onset and compared it with similar self-paced voluntary movements without external command.

DESIGN

We recorded 18 healthy participants performing reaction-time and self-paced fast index finger abductions with 306-sensor magnetoencephalography and electromyography. Reaction-time movements were performed as responses to cutaneous electrical stimulation delivered on the hand radial nerve area. Motor field and movement-evoked field 1 corresponding to the sensorimotor cortex activity during motor execution and afferent feedback after the movement were analyzed with Brainstorm's scouts using regions of interest analysis.

RESULTS

Primary motor and somato sensory cortices were active before and after movement onset. During reaction-time movements, primary motor and somato sensory cortices showed higher activation compared with self-paced movements. In primary motor cortex, stronger preparatory activity was seen in self-paced than in reaction time task.

CONCLUSIONS

Both primary motor and somato sensory cortices participated in the movement execution and in the prediction of sensory consequences of movement. Cutaneous stimulation facilitated cortical activation during motor field after reaction-time movements, implying the applicability of cutaneous stimulation in motor rehabilitation.

To jump or not to jump - The Bereitschaftspotential required to jump into 192-meter abyss

Self-initiated voluntary acts, such as pressing a button, are preceded by a surface-negative electrical brain potential, the Bereitschaftspotential (BP), that can be recorded over the human scalp using electroencephalography (EEG). While the BP's early component (BP1, generated in the supplementary and cingulate motor area) was linked to motivational, intentional and timing properties, the BP's late component (BP2, generated in the primary motor cortex) was found to be linked to motor execution and performance. Up to now, the BP required to initiate voluntary acts has only been recorded under well-controlled laboratory conditions, and it was unknown whether possible life-threatening decision making, e.g. required to jump into a 192-meter abyss, would impact this form of brain activity. Here we document for the first time pre-movement brain activity preceding 192-meter bungee jumping. We found that the BP's spatiotemporal dynamics reflected by BP1 and BP2 are comparable before 192-meter bungee jumping and jumping from 1-meter. These results, possible through recent advancements in wireless and portable EEG technology, suggest that possible life-threatening decision-making has no impact on the BP's spatiotemporal dynamics.

'Catching the waves' - slow cortical potentials as moderator of voluntary action

The readiness potential is an ongoing negativity in the EEG preceding a self-initiated movement by approximately 1.5s. So far it has predominantly been interpreted as a preparatory signal with a causal link to the upcoming movement. Here a different hypothesis is suggested which we call the selective slow cortical potential sampling hypothesis. In this review of recent research results we argue that the initiation of a voluntary action is more likely during negative fluctuations of the slow cortical potential and that the sampling and averaging of many trials leads to the observed negativity. That is, empirical evidence indicates that the early readiness potential is not a neural correlate of preconscious motor preparation and thus a determinant of action. Our hypothesis thereafter challenges the classic interpretation of the Libet experiment which is often taken as proof that there is no free will. We furthermore suggest that slow cortical potentials are related to an urge to act but are not a neural indicator of the decision process of action initiation.