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Feng D, Zhu W, You J, Shi X, Han P, Wei W, Wei Q, Yang L. Mitochondrial Aldehyde Dehydrogenase 2 Represents a Potential Biomarker of Biochemical Recurrence in Prostate Cancer Patients. Molecules 2022; 27:6000. [PMID: 36144737 PMCID: PMC9500792 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27186000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2022] [Revised: 09/04/2022] [Accepted: 09/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND We aimed to explore the role of mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 (ALDH2) in prostate cancer (PCa) patients and provide insights into the tumor immune microenvironment (TME) for those patients undergoing radical radiotherapy. METHODS We performed all analyses using R version 3.6.3 and its suitable packages. Cytoscape 3.8.2 was used to establish network of competing endogenous RNAs (ceRNAs). RESULTS Downregulation of ADLH2 was significantly associated with higher risk of BCR-free survival (HR: 0.40, 95%CI: 0.24-0.68, p = 0.001) and metastasis-free survival (HR: 0.21, 95%CI: 0.09-0.49, p = 0.002). Additionally, ALDH2 repression contributed to significantly shorter BCR-free survival in the TCGA database (HR: 0.55, 95%CI: 0.33-0.93, p = 0.027). For immune checkpoints, patients that expressed a higher level of CD96 had a higher risk of BCR than their counterparts (HR: 1.79, 95%CI: 1.06-3.03, p = 0.032), as well as NRP1 (HR: 2.18, 95%CI: 1.29-3.69, p = 0.005). In terms of the TME parameters, the spearman analysis showed that ALDH was positively associated with B cells (r: 0.13), CD8+ T cells (r: 0.19), neutrophils (r: 0.13), and macrophages (r: 0.17). Patients with higher score of neutrophils (HR: 1.75, 95%CI: 1.03-2.95, p = 0.038), immune score (HR: 1.92, 95%CI: 1.14-3.25, p = 0.017), stromal score (HR: 2.52, 95%CI: 1.49-4.26, p = 0.001), and estimate score (HR: 1.81, 95%CI: 1.07-3.06, p = 0.028) had higher risk of BCR than their counterparts. Our ceRNA network found that PART1 might regulate the expression of ALDH via has-miR-578 and has-miR-6833-3p. Besides, PHA-793887, PI-103, and piperlongumine had better correlations with ALDH2. CONCLUSIONS We found that ALDH2 might serve as a potential biomarker predicting biochemical recurrence for PCa patients.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Qiang Wei
- Department of Urology, Institute of Urology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Lu Yang
- Department of Urology, Institute of Urology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
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Kirman DC, Renganathan B, Chui WK, Chen MW, Kaya NA, Ge R. Cell surface nucleolin is a novel ADAMTS5 receptor mediating endothelial cell apoptosis. Cell Death Dis 2022; 13:172. [PMID: 35197459 PMCID: PMC8866485 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-022-04618-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2021] [Revised: 12/17/2021] [Accepted: 01/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
A Disintegrin and Metalloproteinase with ThromboSpondin motif (ADAMTS) 5 functions as an anti-angiogenic and anti-cancer protein independent of its metalloproteinase activity. Both full-length ADAMTS5 and TS5-p45, the autocatalytically cleaved C-terminal 45 kDa truncate of ADAMTS5, inhibits angiogenesis, and induces endothelial cell (EC) apoptosis. However, how ADAMTS5 triggers EC apoptosis remains unclear. This work shows that caspase-8 (Cas-8) and caspase-9 (Cas-9) are involved in TS5-p45-induced EC apoptosis. We identify cell surface nucleolin (NCL) as a novel high-affinity receptor for TS5-p45 in ECs, mediating TS5-p45's cell surface binding and pro-apoptotic function. We show that the central RNA-binding domain (RBD) of NCL is essential and sufficient for its binding to TS5-p45. Upon interacting with EC surface NCL, TS5-p45 is internalized through clathrin- and caveolin-dependent endocytosis and trafficked to the nucleus via late endosomes (LEs). We demonstrate that the nuclear trafficking of TS5-p45 is important for its pro-apoptotic activity as disruption of LE membrane integrity with an endosomolytic peptide suppressed both nuclear trafficking and pro-apoptotic activity of TS5-p45. Through cell surface biotinylation, we revealed that cell surface NCL shuttles extracellular TS5-p45 to the nucleus to mediate apoptosis. Furthermore, blocking the importin α1/ß1 receptor hindered the nuclear trafficking of TS5-p45, suggesting the involvement of the nuclear importing machinery for this nuclear translocation. RNA-seq identified many apoptosis-related genes that are differentially expressed at least two-fold in TS5-p45-treated ECs, with 10 of them qRT-PCR-validated and at least 5 of these genes potentially contributing to TS5-p45-NCL-induced apoptosis. Altogether, our work identifies NCL as a novel cell surface receptor for ADAMTS5 and demonstrates the critical role of NCL-mediated internalization and nuclear trafficking for ADAMTS5-induced EC apoptosis. These findings reveal novel mechanistic insights of the secreted metalloproteinase ADAMTS5 in angiogenesis inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dogan Can Kirman
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117543, Singapore
| | - Bhuvanasundar Renganathan
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117543, Singapore
| | - Wai Kit Chui
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117543, Singapore
| | - Ming Wei Chen
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 637551, Singapore
| | - Neslihan Arife Kaya
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 637551, Singapore
- Genome Institute of Singapore, Agency for Science, Technology and Research, Singapore, 138672, Singapore
| | - Ruowen Ge
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117543, Singapore.
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Zhu Z, Xu J, Wu X, Lin S, Li L, Ye W, Huang Z. In Silico Identification of Contradictory Role of ADAMTS5 in Hepatocellular Carcinoma. Technol Cancer Res Treat 2021; 20:1533033820986826. [PMID: 33522433 PMCID: PMC7871357 DOI: 10.1177/1533033820986826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: ADAMTS5 has different roles in multiple types of cancers
and participates in various molecular mechanisms. However, the prognostic
value of ADAMTS5 in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma
(HCC) still remains unclear. We carried the study to evaluate the prognostic
value and identified underlying molecular mechanisms in HCC. Methods: Firstly, the association of ADAMTS5 expression and
clinicopathological parameters was evaluated by in GSE14520. Next,
ADAMTS5 expression in HCC was performed using GSE14520,
GSE36376, GSE76427 and The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) profile. Furthermore,
Kaplan-Meier analysis, Univariate and Multivariate Cox regression analysis,
subgroup analysis was performed to evaluate the prognostic value of
ADAMTS5 in HCC. Finally, GO enrichment analysis, gene set
enrichment analysis (GSEA) and weighted gene co-expression network analysis
(WGCNA) were performed to revealed underlying molecular mechanisms. Result: The expression of ADAMTS5 was positively correlated with the
development of HCC. Next, high ADAMTS5 expression was
significantly associated with poorer survival (all P <
0.05) and the impact of ADAMTS5 on all overall survival
(OS), disease-free survival (DFS), relapse-free survival (RFS), disease
specific survival (DSS) and progression free interval (PFI) was specific for
HCC among other 29 cancer types. Subgroup analysis showed that
ADAMTS5 overexpression was significantly associated
with poorer OS in patients with HCC. Finally, ADAMTS5 might
participate in the status conversion from metabolic-dominant to
extracellular matrix-dominant, and the activation of ECM-related biological
process might contribute to high higher mortality risk for patients with
HCC. Conclusion: ADAMTS5 may play an important role in the progression of
HCC, and may be considered as a novel and effective biomarker for predicting
prognosis for patients with HCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhipeng Zhu
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, Xiamen Cancer Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiuhua Xu
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaofang Wu
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, People's Republic of China
| | - Sihao Lin
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, Xiamen Cancer Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, People's Republic of China
| | - Lulu Li
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, Xiamen Cancer Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, People's Republic of China
| | - Weipeng Ye
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhengjie Huang
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, Xiamen Cancer Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, People's Republic of China.,Department of Clinical Medicine, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, People's Republic of China
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de Assis Lima M, da Silva SV, Serrano-Garrido O, Hülsemann M, Santos-Neres L, Rodríguez-Manzaneque JC, Hodgson L, Freitas VM. Metalloprotease ADAMTS-1 decreases cell migration and invasion modulating the spatiotemporal dynamics of Cdc42 activity. Cell Signal 2021; 77:109827. [PMID: 33161094 PMCID: PMC7723338 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellsig.2020.109827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2020] [Revised: 11/02/2020] [Accepted: 11/03/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
ADAMTSs (A Disintegrin And Metalloproteinase with ThromboSpondin motifs) are secreted proteases dependent on Zn2+/Ca2+, involved in physiological and pathological processes and are part of the extracellular matrix (ECM). Here, we investigated if ADAMTS-1 is required for invasion and migration of cells and the possible mechanism involved. In order to test ADAMTS-1's role in ovarian cancer cells (CHO, NIH-OVCAR-3 and ES2) and NIH-3 T3 fibroblasts, we modified the levels of ADAMTS-1 and compared those to parental. Cells exposed to ADAMTS-1-enriched medium exhibited a decline in cell migration and invasion when compared to controls with or without a functional metalloproteinase domain. The opposite was observed in cells when ADAMTS-1 was deleted via the CRISPR/Cas9 approach. The decline in ADAMTS-1 levels enhanced the phosphorylated form of Src and FAK. We also evaluated the activities of cellular Rho GTPases from cell lysates using the GLISA® kit. The Cdc42-GTP signal was significantly increased in the CRISPR ADAMTS-1 ES-2 cells. By a Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) biosensor for Cdc42 activity in ES-2 cells we demonstrated that Cdc42 activity was strongly polarized at the leading edge of migrating cells with ADAMTS-1 deletion, compared to the wild type cells. As conclusion, ADAMTS-1 inhibits proliferation, polarization and migration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maíra de Assis Lima
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, Av. Prof. Lineu Prestes 1524, Ed Biomédicas 1 sala 428, São Paulo, SP 05508-000, Brazil.
| | - Suély Vieira da Silva
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, Av. Prof. Lineu Prestes 1524, Ed Biomédicas 1 sala 428, São Paulo, SP 05508-000, Brazil.
| | - Orlando Serrano-Garrido
- GENYO, Centre for Genomics and Oncological Research, Avenida de la Ilustración, 114, Granada 18016, Spain.
| | - Maren Hülsemann
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, 10461, United States of America, Gruss-Lipper Biophotonics Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, 10461, United States of America.
| | - Luana Santos-Neres
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, Av. Prof. Lineu Prestes 1524, Ed Biomédicas 1 sala 428, São Paulo, SP 05508-000, Brazil.
| | | | - Louis Hodgson
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, 10461, United States of America, Gruss-Lipper Biophotonics Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, 10461, United States of America.
| | - Vanessa M Freitas
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, Av. Prof. Lineu Prestes 1524, Ed Biomédicas 1 sala 428, São Paulo, SP 05508-000, Brazil.
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Li YL, Gao YL, Niu XL, Wu YT, Du YM, Tang MS, Li JY, Guan XH, Song B. Identification of Subtype-Specific Metastasis-Related Genetic Signatures in Sarcoma. Front Oncol 2020; 10:544956. [PMID: 33123466 PMCID: PMC7573283 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2020.544956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2020] [Accepted: 08/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Sarcomas are heterogeneous rare malignancies constituting approximately 1% of all solid cancers in adults and including more than 70 histological and molecular subtypes with different pathological and clinical development characteristics. Method: We identified prognostic biomarkers of sarcomas by integrating clinical information and RNA-seq data from TCGA and GEO databases. In addition, results obtained from cell cycle, cell migration, and invasion assays were used to assess the capacity for Tanespimycin to inhibit the proliferation and metastasis of sarcoma. Results: Sarcoma samples (N = 536) were divided into four pathological subtypes including DL (dedifferentiated liposarcoma), LMS (leiomyosarcoma), UPS (undifferentiated pleomorphic sarcomas), and MFS (myxofibrosarcoma). RNA-seq expression profile data from the TCGA dataset were used to analyze differentially expressed genes (DEGs) within metastatic and non-metastatic samples of these four sarcoma pathological subtypes with DEGs defined as metastatic-related signatures (MRS). Prognostic analysis of MRS identified a group of genes significantly associated with prognosis in three pathological subtypes: DL, LMS, and UPS. ISG15, NUP50, PTTG1, SERPINE1, and TSR1 were found to be more likely associated with adverse prognosis. We also identified Tanespimycin as a drug exerting inhibitory effects on metastatic LMS subtype and therefore can serve a potential treatment for this type of sarcoma. Conclusions: These results provide new insights into the pathogenesis, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of sarcomas and provide new directions for further study of sarcoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ya-Ling Li
- Department of Dermatology, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China.,National Health Commission Key Laboratory of Immunodermatology (China Medical University), Shenyang, China.,Key Laboratory of Immunodermatology, Ministry of Education, Shenyang, China
| | - Ya-Li Gao
- Department of Dermatology, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China.,National Health Commission Key Laboratory of Immunodermatology (China Medical University), Shenyang, China.,Key Laboratory of Immunodermatology, Ministry of Education, Shenyang, China
| | - Xue-Li Niu
- Department of Dermatology, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China.,National Health Commission Key Laboratory of Immunodermatology (China Medical University), Shenyang, China.,Key Laboratory of Immunodermatology, Ministry of Education, Shenyang, China
| | - Yu-Tong Wu
- Department of Dermatology, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China.,National Health Commission Key Laboratory of Immunodermatology (China Medical University), Shenyang, China.,Key Laboratory of Immunodermatology, Ministry of Education, Shenyang, China
| | - Yi-Mei Du
- Department of Dermatology, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China.,National Health Commission Key Laboratory of Immunodermatology (China Medical University), Shenyang, China.,Key Laboratory of Immunodermatology, Ministry of Education, Shenyang, China
| | - Ming-Sui Tang
- Department of Dermatology, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China.,National Health Commission Key Laboratory of Immunodermatology (China Medical University), Shenyang, China.,Key Laboratory of Immunodermatology, Ministry of Education, Shenyang, China
| | - Jing-Yi Li
- Department of Dermatology, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China.,National Health Commission Key Laboratory of Immunodermatology (China Medical University), Shenyang, China.,Key Laboratory of Immunodermatology, Ministry of Education, Shenyang, China
| | - Xiu-Hao Guan
- Department of Dermatology, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China.,National Health Commission Key Laboratory of Immunodermatology (China Medical University), Shenyang, China.,Key Laboratory of Immunodermatology, Ministry of Education, Shenyang, China
| | - Bing Song
- Department of Dermatology, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China.,School of Dentistry, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
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Santamaria S. ADAMTS-5: A difficult teenager turning 20. Int J Exp Pathol 2020; 101:4-20. [PMID: 32219922 DOI: 10.1111/iep.12344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2019] [Revised: 12/28/2019] [Accepted: 01/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
A Disintegrin And Metalloproteinase with ThromboSpondin motif (ADAMTS)-5 was identified in 1999 as one of the enzymes responsible for cleaving aggrecan, the major proteoglycan in articular cartilage. Studies in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo have validated ADAMTS-5 as a target in osteoarthritis (OA), a disease characterized by extensive degradation of aggrecan. For this reason, it attracted the interest of many research groups aiming to develop a therapeutic treatment for OA patients. However, ADAMTS-5 proteoglycanase activity is not only involved in the dysregulated aggrecan proteolysis, which occurs in OA, but also in the physiological turnover of other related proteoglycans. In particular, versican, a major ADAMTS-5 substrate, plays an important structural role in heart and blood vessels and its proteolytic processing by ADAMTS-5 must be tightly regulated. On the occasion of the 20th anniversary of the discovery of ADAMTS-5, this review looks at the evidence for its detrimental role in OA, as well as its physiological turnover of cardiovascular proteoglycans. Moreover, the other potential functions of this enzyme are highlighted. Finally, challenges and emerging trends in ADAMTS-5 research are discussed.
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Roy R, Morad G, Jedinak A, Moses MA. Metalloproteinases and their roles in human cancer. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2019; 303:1557-1572. [PMID: 31168956 DOI: 10.1002/ar.24188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2018] [Revised: 12/27/2018] [Accepted: 03/04/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
It is now widely appreciated that members of the matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) family of enzymes play a key role in cancer development and progression along with many of the hallmarks associated with them. The activity of these enzymes has been directly implicated in extracellular matrix remodeling, the processing of growth factors and receptors, the modulation of cell migration, proliferation, and invasion, the epithelial to mesenchymal transition, the regulation of immune responses, and the control of angiogenesis. Certain MMP family members have been validated as biomarkers of a variety of human cancers including those of the breast, brain, pancreas, prostate, ovary, and others. The related metalloproteinases, the A disintegrin and metalloproteinases (ADAMs), share a number of these functions as well. Here, we explore these essential metalloproteinases and some of their disease-associated activities in detail as well as some of their complementary translational potential. Anat Rec, 2019. © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roopali Roy
- The Vascular Biology Program, Boston Children's Hospital and the Department of Surgery, Boston Children's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Golnaz Morad
- The Vascular Biology Program, Boston Children's Hospital and the Department of Surgery, Boston Children's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Andrej Jedinak
- The Vascular Biology Program, Boston Children's Hospital and the Department of Surgery, Boston Children's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Marsha A Moses
- The Vascular Biology Program, Boston Children's Hospital and the Department of Surgery, Boston Children's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
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Emerging Roles of Redox-Mediated Angiogenesis and Oxidative Stress in Dermatoses. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2019; 2019:2304018. [PMID: 31178954 PMCID: PMC6501144 DOI: 10.1155/2019/2304018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2018] [Revised: 02/14/2019] [Accepted: 03/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Angiogenesis is the process of new vessel formation, which sprouts from preexisting vessels. This process is highly complex and primarily involves several key steps, including stimulation of endothelial cells by growth factors, degradation of the extracellular matrix by proteolytic enzymes, migration and proliferation of endothelial cells, and capillary tube formation. Currently, it is considered that multiple cytokines play a vital role in this process, which consist of proangiogenic factors (e.g., vascular endothelial growth factor, fibroblast growth factors, and angiopoietins) and antiangiogenic factors (e.g., endostatin, thrombospondin, and angiostatin). Angiogenesis is essential for most physiological events, such as body growth and development, tissue repair, and wound healing. However, uncontrolled neovascularization may contribute to angiogenic disorders. In physiological conditions, the above promoters and inhibitors function in a coordinated way to induce and sustain angiogenesis within a limited period of time. Conversely, the imbalance between proangiogenic and antiangiogenic factors could cause pathological angiogenesis and trigger several diseases. With insights into the molecular mechanisms of angiogenesis, increasing reports have shown that a close relationship exists between angiogenesis and oxidative stress (OS) in both physiological and pathological conditions. OS, an imbalance between prooxidant and antioxidant systems, is a cause and consequence of many vascular complains and serves as one of the biomarkers for these diseases. Furthermore, emerging evidence supports that OS and angiogenesis play vital roles in many dermatoses, such as psoriasis, atopic dermatitis, and skin tumor. This review summarizes recent findings on the role of OS as a trigger of angiogenesis in skin disorders, highlights newly identified mechanisms, and introduces the antiangiogenic and antioxidant therapeutic strategies.
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