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Fontana F, Sommariva M, Anselmi M, Bianchi F, Limonta P, Gagliano N. Differentiation States of Phenotypic Transition of Melanoma Cells Are Revealed by 3D Cell Cultures. Cells 2024; 13:181. [PMID: 38247872 PMCID: PMC10814891 DOI: 10.3390/cells13020181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2023] [Revised: 01/09/2024] [Accepted: 01/15/2024] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Melanoma is characterized by high metastatic potential favored by the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), leading melanoma cells to exhibit a spectrum of typical EMT markers. This study aimed to analyze the expression of EMT markers in A375 and BLM melanoma cell lines cultured in 2D monolayers and 3D spheroids using morphological and molecular methods. The expression of EMT markers was strongly affected by 3D arrangement and revealed a hybrid phenotype for the two cell lines. Indeed, although E-cadherin was almost undetectable in both A375 and BLM cells, cortical actin was detected in A375 2D monolayers and 3D spheroids and was strongly expressed in BLM 3D spheroids. The mesenchymal marker N-cadherin was significantly up-regulated in A375 3D spheroids while undetectable in BLM cells, but vimentin was similarly expressed in both cell lines at the gene and protein levels. This pattern suggests that A375 cells exhibit a more undifferentiated/mesenchymal phenotype, while BLM cells have more melanocytic/differentiated characteristics. Accordingly, the Zeb1 and 2, Slug, Snail and Twist gene expression analyses showed that they were differentially expressed in 2D monolayers compared to 3D spheroids, supporting this view. Furthermore, A375 cells are characterized by a greater invasive potential, strongly influenced by 3D arrangement, compared to the BLM cell line, as evaluated by SDS-zymography and TIMPs gene expression analysis. Finally, TGF-β1, a master controller of EMT, and lysyl oxidase (LOX), involved in melanoma progression, were strongly up-regulated by 3D arrangement in the metastatic BLM cells alone, likely playing a role in the metastatic phases of melanoma progression. Overall, these findings suggest that A375 and BLM cells possess a hybrid/intermediate phenotype in relation to the expression of EMT markers. The former is characterized by a more mesenchymal/undifferentiated phenotype, while the latter shows a more melanocytic/differentiated phenotype. Our results contribute to the characterization of the role of EMT in melanoma cells and confirm that a 3D cell culture model could provide deeper insight into our understanding of the biology of melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabrizio Fontana
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences “Rodolfo Paoletti”, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy; (F.F.); (M.A.); (P.L.)
| | - Michele Sommariva
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy; (M.S.); (F.B.)
| | - Martina Anselmi
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences “Rodolfo Paoletti”, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy; (F.F.); (M.A.); (P.L.)
| | - Francesca Bianchi
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy; (M.S.); (F.B.)
- U. O. Laboratorio Morfologia Umana Applicata, IRCCS Policlinico San Donato, San Donato Milanese, 20097 Milan, Italy
| | - Patrizia Limonta
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences “Rodolfo Paoletti”, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy; (F.F.); (M.A.); (P.L.)
| | - Nicoletta Gagliano
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy; (M.S.); (F.B.)
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Cen X, Li M, Yao A, Zheng Y, Lai W. Immune infiltration and clinical significance analyses of the cancer-associated fibroblast-related signature in skin cutaneous melanoma. J Gene Med 2024; 26:e3614. [PMID: 37847069 DOI: 10.1002/jgm.3614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2023] [Revised: 07/14/2023] [Accepted: 09/26/2023] [Indexed: 10/18/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Skin cutaneous melanoma (SKCM) is one of the most aggressive cancers with high mortality rates. Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) play essential roles in tumor growth, metastasis and the establishment of a pro-tumor microenvironment. This study aimed to establish a CAF-related signature for providing a new perspective for indicating prognosis and guiding therapeutic regimens of SKCM patients. METHODS In this study, the CAF-related genes were screened out based on melanoma-associated fibroblast markers identified from single-cell transcriptome analysis in the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database and a CAF-related module identified from weighted gene co-expression analysis using The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) dataset. We extracted these gene expression data of SKCM samples from TCGA and constructed a prognostic CAF-related signature. The prediction abilities of the signature for survival prognosis, tumor immune landscape and responses to chemo-/immunotherapies were evaluated in the TCGA-SKCM cohort. RESULTS We suggested that CAFs were significantly involved in the clinical outcomes of SKCM. A 10-gene CAF-related model was constructed, and the high-CAF risk group exhibited immunosuppressive features and worse prognosis. Patients with high CAF score were more likely to not respond to immune checkpoint inhibitors but were more sensitive to some chemotherapeutic agents, suggesting a potential approach of chemotherapy/anti-CAF combination treatment to improve the SKCM patient response rate of current immunotherapies. CONCLUSIONS The CAF-related risk score could serve as a robust prognostic indicator and personal assessment of this score could uncover the degree of immunosuppression and provide treatment strategies to improve outcomes in clinical decision-making in SKCM patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xintao Cen
- Department of Dermatology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Mengna Li
- Department of Dermatology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Amin Yao
- Department of Dermatology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Yue Zheng
- Department of Dermatology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Wei Lai
- Department of Dermatology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
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Cano A, Eraso P, Mazón MJ, Portillo F. LOXL2 in Cancer: A Two-Decade Perspective. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:14405. [PMID: 37762708 PMCID: PMC10532419 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241814405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2023] [Revised: 09/19/2023] [Accepted: 09/20/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Lysyl Oxidase Like 2 (LOXL2) belongs to the lysyl oxidase (LOX) family, which comprises five lysine tyrosylquinone (LTQ)-dependent copper amine oxidases in humans. In 2003, LOXL2 was first identified as a promoter of tumour progression and, over the course of two decades, numerous studies have firmly established its involvement in multiple cancers. Extensive research with large cohorts of human tumour samples has demonstrated that dysregulated LOXL2 expression is strongly associated with poor prognosis in patients. Moreover, investigations have revealed the association of LOXL2 with various targets affecting diverse aspects of tumour progression. Additionally, the discovery of a complex network of signalling factors acting at the transcriptional, post-transcriptional, and post-translational levels has provided insights into the mechanisms underlying the aberrant expression of LOXL2 in tumours. Furthermore, the development of genetically modified mouse models with silenced or overexpressed LOXL2 has enabled in-depth exploration of its in vivo role in various cancer models. Given the significant role of LOXL2 in numerous cancers, extensive efforts are underway to identify specific inhibitors that could potentially improve patient prognosis. In this review, we aim to provide a comprehensive overview of two decades of research on the role of LOXL2 in cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amparo Cano
- Departamento de Bioquímica UAM, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas Alberto Sols, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas-Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (CSIC-UAM), 28029 Madrid, Spain; (A.C.); (P.E.); (M.J.M.)
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Universitario La Paz—IdiPAZ, 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red, Área de Cáncer (CIBERONC), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Pilar Eraso
- Departamento de Bioquímica UAM, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas Alberto Sols, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas-Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (CSIC-UAM), 28029 Madrid, Spain; (A.C.); (P.E.); (M.J.M.)
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Universitario La Paz—IdiPAZ, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - María J. Mazón
- Departamento de Bioquímica UAM, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas Alberto Sols, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas-Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (CSIC-UAM), 28029 Madrid, Spain; (A.C.); (P.E.); (M.J.M.)
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Universitario La Paz—IdiPAZ, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Francisco Portillo
- Departamento de Bioquímica UAM, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas Alberto Sols, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas-Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (CSIC-UAM), 28029 Madrid, Spain; (A.C.); (P.E.); (M.J.M.)
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Universitario La Paz—IdiPAZ, 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red, Área de Cáncer (CIBERONC), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
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Narciso M, Martínez Á, Júnior C, Díaz-Valdivia N, Ulldemolins A, Berardi M, Neal K, Navajas D, Farré R, Alcaraz J, Almendros I, Gavara N. Lung Micrometastases Display ECM Depletion and Softening While Macrometastases Are 30-Fold Stiffer and Enriched in Fibronectin. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15:cancers15082404. [PMID: 37190331 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15082404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2023] [Revised: 04/16/2023] [Accepted: 04/18/2023] [Indexed: 05/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Mechanical changes in tumors have long been linked to increased malignancy and therapy resistance and attributed to mechanical changes in the tumor extracellular matrix (ECM). However, to the best of our knowledge, there have been no mechanical studies on decellularized tumors. Here, we studied the biochemical and mechanical progression of the tumor ECM in two models of lung metastases: lung carcinoma (CAR) and melanoma (MEL). We decellularized the metastatic lung sections, measured the micromechanics of the tumor ECM, and stained the sections for ECM proteins, proliferation, and cell death markers. The same methodology was applied to MEL mice treated with the clinically approved anti-fibrotic drug nintedanib. When compared to healthy ECM (~0.40 kPa), CAR and MEL lung macrometastases produced a highly dense and stiff ECM (1.79 ± 1.32 kPa, CAR and 6.39 ± 3.37 kPa, MEL). Fibronectin was overexpressed from the early stages (~118%) to developed macrometastases (~260%) in both models. Surprisingly, nintedanib caused a 4-fold increase in ECM-occupied tumor area (5.1 ± 1.6% to 18.6 ± 8.9%) and a 2-fold in-crease in ECM stiffness (6.39 ± 3.37 kPa to 12.35 ± 5.74 kPa). This increase in stiffness strongly correlated with an increase in necrosis, which reveals a potential link between tumor hypoxia and ECM deposition and stiffness. Our findings highlight fibronectin and tumor ECM mechanics as attractive targets in cancer therapy and support the need to identify new anti-fibrotic drugs to abrogate aberrant ECM mechanics in metastases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Narciso
- Unit of Biophysics and Bioengineering, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Barcelona, 08036 Barcelona, Spain
- The Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology (BIST), 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - África Martínez
- Unit of Biophysics and Bioengineering, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Barcelona, 08036 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Constança Júnior
- Unit of Biophysics and Bioengineering, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Barcelona, 08036 Barcelona, Spain
- The Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology (BIST), 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Natalia Díaz-Valdivia
- Unit of Biophysics and Bioengineering, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Barcelona, 08036 Barcelona, Spain
- The Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology (BIST), 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Anna Ulldemolins
- Unit of Biophysics and Bioengineering, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Barcelona, 08036 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Massimiliano Berardi
- LaserLab, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1081, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Optics11, Hettenheuvelweg 37-39, 1101 BM Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Kate Neal
- Unit of Biophysics and Bioengineering, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Barcelona, 08036 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Daniel Navajas
- Unit of Biophysics and Bioengineering, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Barcelona, 08036 Barcelona, Spain
- The Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology (BIST), 08028 Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER de Enfermedades Respiratorias (CIBERES), 08036 Madrid, Spain
| | - Ramon Farré
- Unit of Biophysics and Bioengineering, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Barcelona, 08036 Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER de Enfermedades Respiratorias (CIBERES), 08036 Madrid, Spain
- Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), 08036 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jordi Alcaraz
- Unit of Biophysics and Bioengineering, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Barcelona, 08036 Barcelona, Spain
- The Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology (BIST), 08028 Barcelona, Spain
- Thoracic Oncology Unit, Hospital Clinic Barcelona, 08036 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Isaac Almendros
- Unit of Biophysics and Bioengineering, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Barcelona, 08036 Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER de Enfermedades Respiratorias (CIBERES), 08036 Madrid, Spain
- Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), 08036 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Núria Gavara
- Unit of Biophysics and Bioengineering, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Barcelona, 08036 Barcelona, Spain
- The Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology (BIST), 08028 Barcelona, Spain
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Shi H, Xiong J, Gan L, Zhang Y, Zhang C, Kong Y, Miao Q, Tian C, Li R, Liu J, Zhang E, Bu W, Wang Y, Cheng X, Sun J, Chen H. N6-methyladenosine reader YTHDF3 regulates melanoma metastasis via its 'executor'LOXL3. Clin Transl Med 2022; 12:e1075. [PMID: 36324258 PMCID: PMC9630608 DOI: 10.1002/ctm2.1075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2022] [Revised: 09/19/2022] [Accepted: 09/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND A number of studies have demonstrated that N6-methyladenosine (m6A) plays a vital role in the pathological process of various tumours. Recently, it was found that m6A writers or erasers affect the tumourigenesis of melanoma. However, the relationship between m6A readers such as YTH domain family (YTHDF) proteins and melanoma was still elusive. METHODS RT-qPCR, Western blot and immunohistochemistry were conducted to measure the expression level of YTH N6-methyladenosine RNA binding protein 3 (YTHDF3) and lysyl oxidase-like 3 (LOXL3) in melanoma tissues and cells. The effects of YTHDF3 and LOXL3 on melanoma were verified in vitro and in vivo. Multi-omics analysis including RNA-seq, MeRIP-seq, RIP-seq and mass spectrometry analyses was performed to identify the target. The interaction between YTHDF3 and LOXL3 was verified by RT-PCR, Western blot, MeRIP-qPCR, RIP-qPCR and CRISPR-Cas13b-based epitranscriptome engineering. RESULTS In this study, we found that m6A reader YTHDF3 could affect the metastasis of melanoma both in vitro and in vivo. The downstream targets of YTHDF3, such as LOXL3, phosphodiesterase 3A (PDE3A) and chromodomain helicase DNA-binding protein 7 (CHD7) were identified by means of RNA-seq, MeRIP-seq, RIP-seq and mass spectrometry analyses. Besides, RT-qPCR, Western blot, RIP-qPCR and MeRIP-qPCR were performed for subsequent validation. Among various targets of YTHDF3, LOXL3 was found to be the optimal target of YTHDF3. With the application of CRISPR-Cas13b-based epitranscriptome engineering, we further confirmed that the transcript of LOXL3 was captured and regulated by YTHDF3 via m6A binding sites. YTHDF3 augmented the protein expression of LOXL3 without affecting its mRNA level via the enrichment of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 3 subunit A (eIF3A) on the transcript of LOXL3. LOXL3 downregulation inhibited the metastatic ability of melanoma cells, and overexpression of LOXL3 ameliorated the inhibition of melanoma metastasis caused by YTHDF3 downregulation. CONCLUSIONS The YTHDF3-LOXL3 axis could serve as a promising target to be interfered with to inhibit the metastasis of melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao‐ze Shi
- Department of Pathology, Institute of DermatologyChinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical CollegeNanjingChina
| | - Jing‐shu Xiong
- Laboratory of Mycobacteriology, Institute of DermatologyChinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical CollegeNanjingChina
| | - Lu Gan
- Department of Sexually Transmitted Disease, Institute of DermatologyChinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical CollegeNanjingChina
| | - Ying Zhang
- Department of Pathology, Institute of DermatologyChinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical CollegeNanjingChina
| | - Cong‐cong Zhang
- Department of Pathology, Institute of DermatologyChinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical CollegeNanjingChina
| | - Ying‐qi Kong
- Department of Pathology, Institute of DermatologyChinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical CollegeNanjingChina
| | - Qiu‐ju Miao
- Department of Pathology, Institute of DermatologyChinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical CollegeNanjingChina
| | - Cui‐cui Tian
- Department of Pathology, Institute of DermatologyChinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical CollegeNanjingChina
| | - Rong Li
- Department of Physiotherapy, Institute of DermatologyChinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical CollegeNanjingChina
| | - Jin‐quan Liu
- National Center for STD ControlChina CDCNanjingChina
| | - Er‐jia Zhang
- Department of DermatologyChina Aerospace Science & Industry Corporation 731 HospitalBeijingChina
| | - Wen‐bo Bu
- Department of Surgery, Institute of DermatologyChinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical CollegeNanjingChina
| | - Yan Wang
- Department of Surgery, Institute of DermatologyChinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical CollegeNanjingChina
| | - Xian‐feng Cheng
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Institute of DermatologyChinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical CollegeNanjingChina
| | - Jian‐fang Sun
- Department of Pathology, Institute of DermatologyChinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical CollegeNanjingChina
| | - Hao Chen
- Department of Pathology, Institute of DermatologyChinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical CollegeNanjingChina
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Liburkin-Dan T, Toledano S, Neufeld G. Lysyl Oxidase Family Enzymes and Their Role in Tumor Progression. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23116249. [PMID: 35682926 PMCID: PMC9181702 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23116249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2022] [Revised: 05/26/2022] [Accepted: 05/31/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The five genes of the lysyl oxidase family encode enzymes that covalently cross-link components of the extracellular matrix, such as various types of collagen and elastin, and, thus, promote the stabilization of extracellular matrixes. Several of these genes, in particular lysyl oxidase (LOX) and lysyl oxidase like-2 (LOXL2) were identified as genes that are upregulated by hypoxia, and promote tumor cells invasion and metastasis. Here, we focus on the description of the diverse molecular mechanisms by which the various lysyl oxidases affect tumor progression. We also describe attempts that have been made, and are still on-going, that focus on the development of efficient lysyl oxidase inhibitors for the treatment of various forms of cancer, and of diseases associated with abnormal fibrosis.
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Loxl2 and Loxl3 Paralogues Play Redundant Roles during Mouse Development. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23105730. [PMID: 35628534 PMCID: PMC9144032 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23105730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2022] [Revised: 05/17/2022] [Accepted: 05/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase-like 2 (LOXL2) and 3 (LOXL3) are members of the lysyl oxidase family of enzymes involved in the maturation of the extracellular matrix. Both enzymes share a highly conserved catalytic domain, but it is unclear whether they perform redundant functions in vivo. In this study, we show that mice lacking Loxl3 exhibit perinatal lethality and abnormal skeletal development. Additionally, analysis of the genotype of embryos carrying double knockout of Loxl2 and Loxl3 genes suggests that both enzymes have overlapping functions during mouse development. Furthermore, we also show that ubiquitous expression of Loxl2 suppresses the lethality associated with Loxl3 knockout mice.
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