Extracellular Vesicles: A Novel Tool in Nanomedicine and Cancer Treatment

Probiotic Lactobacillus-Derived Extracellular Vesicles: Insights Into Disease Prevention and Management

Bacterial extracellular vesicles (BEVs) have emerged as versatile and promising tools for therapeutic interventions across a spectrum of medical applications. Among these, Lactobacillus-derived extracellular vesicles (LDEVs) have garnered significant attention due to their diverse physiological functions and applications in health advancement. These LDEVs modulate host cell signaling pathways through the delivery of bioactive molecules, including nucleic acids and proteins. The immunomodulatory properties of LDEVs are important, as they have been shown to regulate the balance between pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory responses in various diseases. These LDEVs play a crucial role in maintaining gut homeostasis by modulating the composition and function of the gut microbiota, which has implications for health conditions, including inflammatory bowel diseases, metabolic disorders, and neurological disorders. Furthermore, LDEVs hold potential to deliver therapeutic payloads to specific tissues or organs. Engineered LDEVs can be loaded with therapeutic agents such as antimicrobial peptides or nucleic acid-based therapies to treat various diseases. By leveraging the unique properties of LDEVs, researchers can develop innovative strategies for disease prevention, treatment, and overall well-being. Thus, this review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the therapeutic benefits of LDEVs and their implications for promoting overall well-being.

Development of complementary analytical methods to characterize extracellular vesicles

BACKGROUND

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are involved in intercellular communication and various biological processes. They hold clinical promise for the diagnosis and management of a wide range of pathologies, including cancer, cardiovascular diseases and degenerative diseases, and are of interest as regenerative therapies. Understanding the complex structure of these EVs is essential to perceive the current challenges associated with their analysis and characterization. Today, challenges remain in terms of access to high-yield, high-purity isolation methods, as well as analytical methods for characterizing and controlling the quality of these products for clinical use.

RESULTS

We isolated EVs from the same immortalized human cell culture supernatant using two commonly used approaches, namely differential ultracentrifugation and membrane affinity. Then we evaluated EV morphology, size, zeta potential, particle and protein content, as well as protein identity using cryogenic electron microscopy, nanoparticle tracking analysis, asymmetric field flow fractionation (AF4) and size exclusion chromatography (SEC) coupled to multi angle light scattering, bicinchoninic acid assay, electrophoretic light scattering, western blotting and high-resolution mass spectrometry. Compared to membrane affinity isolation, dUC is a more efficient isolation process for obtaining particles with the characteristics expected for EVs and more specifically for exosomes. To validate an isolation process, cryogenic electron microscopy is essential to confirm vesicles with membranes. High resolution mass spectrometry is powerful for understanding the mechanism of action of vesicles. Separative methods, such as AF4 and SEC, are interesting for separating vesicle subpopulations and contaminants.

SIGNIFICANCE

This study provides a critical assessment of eight different techniques for analyzing EVs, some of which are mandatory for in-depth characterization and deciphering, while others are more appropriate for routine analysis, once the production and isolation process has been validated. The strengths and limitations of the different approaches used are highlighted.

Fungal Extracellular Vesicle Proteins with Potential in Biological Interaction

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are vesicle-like structures composed of lipid bilayers, which can be divided into apoptotic bodies, microbubbles and exosomes. They are nanoparticles used for the exchange of information between cells. EVs contains many substances, including protein. With the development of proteomics, we know more about the types and functions of protein in vesicles. The potential functions of proteins in the envelope are mainly discussed, including cell wall construction, fungal virulence transmission, signal transmission and redox reactions, which provides a new perspective for studying the interaction mechanism between fungi and other organisms. The fungal protein markers of EVs are also summarized, which provided an exploration tool for studying the mechanism of vesicles. In addition, the possible role of immune protein in the EVs in the treatment of human diseases is also discussed, which provides new ideas for vaccine development.

Capillary force-driven reverse-Tesla valve structure for microfluidic bioassays

Biological assays involve the lysis of biological particles, enzyme reactions, and gene amplification, and require a certain amount of time for completion. Microfluidic chips are regarded as powerful devices for biological assays and in vitro diagnostics; however, they cannot achieve a high mixing efficiency, particularly in some time-consuming biological reactions. Herein, we introduce a microfluidic reverse-Tesla (reTesla) valve structure in which the fluid is affected by vortices and branch flow convergence, resulting in flow retardation and a high degree of mixing. The reTesla is passively operated by a microfluidic capillary force without any pumping facility. Compared with our previously developed micromixers, this innovative pumpless microfluidic chip exhibited high performance, with a mixing efficiency of more than 93%. The versatility of our reTesla chip will play a pivotal role in the study of various biological and chemical reactions.

Advanced Nanoarchitectonics of Drug Delivery Systems with Pyroptosis Inhibition for Noncancerous Disease Treatment

Programmed cell death (PCD) is a controlled and organized form of death regulated by genes, allowing cells to adapt to their environment. Pyroptosis, a recently discovered type of programmed cell death, differs from apoptosis and necrosis. It is characterized by the activation of caspase and the cleavage of gasdermin. Many studies have focused on understanding the mechanisms and roles of pyroptosis, particularly in cancer research. While inducing pyroptosis in tumor cells for cancer treatment is a major research focus, it is equally important to explore methods of reducing pyroptosis in noncancerous diseases. Recent advancements in drug delivery systems, specifically nanoarchitectonics, offer site‐specific targeting, prolonged drug circulation, enhanced efficacy, improved solubility, and better absorption. Although several reviews have described how nanoarchitectonics can trigger pyroptosis in tumor cells, little attention is given to their potential to inhibit pyroptosis in noncancerous diseases. Therefore, it is crucial to bridge this gap and explore the future directions for utilizing nanoarchitectonics as a powerful tool against noncancerous diseases. This review aims to delve into the recent progress made in nanoarchitectonics‐based advanced drug delivery systems for the treatment of noncancerous diseases by reducing pyroptosis, while also highlighting potential future perspectives in this emerging field.

The Interplay between Glioblastoma Cells and Tumor Microenvironment: New Perspectives for Early Diagnosis and Targeted Cancer Therapy

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) stands out as the most tremendous brain tumor, constituting 60% of primary brain cancers, accompanied by dismal survival rates. Despite advancements in research, therapeutic options remain limited to chemotherapy and surgery. GBM molecular heterogeneity, the intricate interaction with the tumor microenvironment (TME), and non-selective treatments contribute to the neoplastic relapse. Diagnostic challenges arise from GBM advanced-stage detection, necessitating the exploration of novel biomarkers for early diagnosis. Using data from the literature and a bioinformatic tool, the current manuscript delineates the molecular interplay between human GBM, astrocytes, and myeloid cells, underscoring selected protein pathways belonging to astroglia and myeloid lineage, which can be considered for targeted therapies. Moreover, the pivotal role of extracellular vesicles (EVs) in orchestrating a favorable microenvironment for cancer progression is highlighted, suggesting their utility in identifying biomarkers for GBM early diagnosis.

Dual impacts of mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes on cancer cells: unravelling complex interactions

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are multipotent, self-renewing stromal cells found in a variety of adult tissues. MSCs possess a remarkable ability to migrate towards tumor sites, known as homing. This homing process is mediated by various factors, including chemokines, growth factors, and extracellular matrix components present in the tumor microenvironment. MSCs release extracellular vesicles known as exosomes (MSC-Exos), which have been suggested to serve a key role in mediating a wide variety of MSC activities. Through cell-cell communication, MSC-Exos have been shown to alter recipient cell phenotype or function and play as a novel cell-free alternative for MSC-based cell therapy. However, MSC recruitment to tumors allows for their interaction with cancer cells and subsequent regulation of tumor behavior. MSC-Exos act as tumor niche modulators via transferring exosomal contents, such as specific proteins or genetic materials, to the nearby cancer cells, leading to either promotion or suppression of tumorigenesis, angiogenesis, and metastasis, depending on the specific microenvironmental cues and recipient cell characteristics. Consequently, there is still a debate about the precise relationship between tumor cells and MSC-Exos, and it is unclear how MSC-Exos impacts tumor cells. Although the dysregulation of miRNAs is caused by the progression of cancer, they also play a direct role in either promoting or inhibiting tumor growth as they act as either oncogenes or tumor suppressors. The utilization of MSC-Exos may prove to be an effective method for restoring miRNA as a means of treating cancer. This review aimed to present the existing understanding of the impact that MSC-Exos could have on cancer. To begin with, we presented a brief explanation of exosomes, MSCs, and MSC-Exos. Following this, we delved into the impact of MSC-Exos on cancer growth, EMT, metastasis, angiogenesis, resistance to chemotherapy and radiotherapy, and modulation of the immune system. Opposing effects of mesenchymal stem cells-derived exosomes on cancer cells.

FTO-targeted siRNA delivery by MSC-derived exosomes synergistically alleviates dopaminergic neuronal death in Parkinson's disease via m6A-dependent regulation of ATM mRNA

BACKGROUND

Parkinson's disease (PD), characterized by the progressive loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra and striatum of brain, seriously threatens human health, and is still lack of effective treatment. Dysregulation of N6-methyladenosine (m6A) modification has been implicated in PD pathogenesis. However, how m6A modification regulates dopaminergic neuronal death in PD remains elusive. Mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes (MSC-Exo) have been shown to be effective for treating central nervous disorders. We thus propose that the m6A demethylase FTO-targeted siRNAs (si-FTO) may be encapsulated in MSC-Exo (Exo-siFTO) as a synergistic therapy against dopaminergic neuronal death in PD.

METHODS

In this study, the effect of m6A demethylase FTO on dopaminergic neuronal death was evaluated both in vivo and in vitro using a MPTP-treated mice model and a MPP + -induced MN9D cellular model, respectively. The mechanism through which FTO influences dopaminergic neuronal death in PD was investigated with qRT-PCR, western blot, immumohistochemical staining, immunofluorescent staining and flow cytometry. The therapeutic roles of MSC-Exo containing si-FTO were examined in PD models in vivo and in vitro.

RESULTS

The total m6A level was significantly decreased and FTO expression was increased in PD models in vivo and in vitro. FTO was found to promote the expression of cellular death-related factor ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM) via m6A-dependent stabilization of ATM mRNA in dopaminergic neurons. Knockdown of FTO by si-FTO concomitantly suppressed upregulation of α-Synuclein (α-Syn) and downregulation of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), and alleviated neuronal death in PD models. Moreover, MSC-Exo were utilized to successfully deliver si-FTO to the striatum of animal brain, resulting in the significant suppression of α-Syn expression and dopaminergic neuronal death, and recovery of TH expression in the brain of PD mice.

CONCLUSIONS

MSC-Exo delivery of si-FTO synergistically alleviates dopaminergic neuronal death in PD via m6A-dependent regulation of ATM mRNA.

Exploiting Nanomedicine for Cancer Polychemotherapy: Recent Advances and Clinical Applications

The most important limitations of chemotherapeutic agents are severe side effects and the development of multi-drug resistance. Recently, the clinical successes achieved with immunotherapy have revolutionized the treatment of several advanced-stage malignancies, but most patients do not respond and many of them develop immune-related adverse events. Loading synergistic combinations of different anti-tumor drugs in nanocarriers may enhance their efficacy and reduce life-threatening toxicities. Thereafter, nanomedicines may synergize with pharmacological, immunological, and physical combined treatments, and should be increasingly integrated in multimodal combination therapy regimens. The goal of this manuscript is to provide better understanding and key considerations for developing new combined nanomedicines and nanotheranostics. We will clarify the potential of combined nanomedicine strategies that are designed to target different steps of the cancer growth as well as its microenvironment and immunity interactions. Moreover, we will describe relevant experiments in animal models and discuss issues raised by translation in the human setting.

The Roles of Exosomes in Metastasis of Sarcoma: From Biomarkers to Therapeutic Targets

Sarcoma is a heterogeneous group of mesenchymal neoplasms with a high rate of lung metastasis. The cellular mechanisms responsible for sarcoma metastasis remain poorly understood. Furthermore, there are limited efficacious therapeutic strategies for treating metastatic sarcoma. Improved diagnostic and therapeutic modalities are of increasing importance for the treatment of sarcoma due to their high mortality in the advanced stages of the disease. Recent evidence demonstrates that the exosome, a type of extracellular vesicle released by virtually all cells in the body, is an important facilitator of intercellular communication between the cells and the surrounding environment. The exosome is gaining significant attention among the medical research community, but there is little knowledge about how the exosome affects sarcoma metastasis. In this review, we summarize the multifaceted roles of sarcoma-derived exosomes in promoting the process of metastasis via the formation of pre-metastatic niche (PMN), the regulation of immunity, angiogenesis, vascular permeability, and the migration of sarcoma cells. We also highlight the potential of exosomes as innovative diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers as well as therapeutic targets in sarcoma metastasis.

Extracellular Vesicles as Mediators of Nickel-Induced Cancer Progression

Emerging evidence suggests that extracellular vesicles (EVs), which represent a crucial mode of intercellular communication, play important roles in cancer progression by transferring oncogenic materials. Nickel (Ni) has been identified as a human group I carcinogen; however, the underlying mechanisms governing Ni-induced carcinogenesis are still being elucidated. Here, we present data demonstrating that Ni exposure generates EVs that contribute to Ni-mediated carcinogenesis and cancer progression. Human bronchial epithelial (BEAS-2B) cells and human embryonic kidney-293 (HEK293) cells were chronically exposed to Ni to generate Ni-treated cells (Ni-6W), Ni-transformed BEAS-2B cells (Ni-3) and Ni-transformed HEK293 cells (HNi-4). The signatures of EVs isolated from Ni-6W, Ni-3, HNi-4, BEAS-2B, and HEK293 were analyzed. Compared to their respective untreated cells, Ni-6W, Ni-3, and HNi-4 released more EVs. This change in EV release coincided with increased transcription of the EV biogenesis markers CD82, CD63, and flotillin-1 (FLOT). Additionally, EVs from Ni-transformed cells had enriched protein and RNA, a phenotype also observed in other studies characterizing EVs from cancer cells. Interestingly, both epithelial cells and human umbilical vein endothelial (HUVEC) cells showed a preference for taking up Ni-altered EVs compared to EVs released from the untreated cells. Moreover, these Ni-altered EVs induced inflammatory responses in both epithelial and endothelial cells and increased the expression of coagulation markers in endothelial cells. Prolonged treatment of Ni-alerted EVs for two weeks induced the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in BEAS-2B cells. This study is the first to characterize the effect of Ni on EVs and suggests the potential role of EVs in Ni-induced cancer progression.

Engineered stem cell exosomes for oral and maxillofacial wound healing

Wound healing of the oral and maxillofacial area affects the quality of life and mental health of the patient; therefore, effective therapies are required to promote wound healing. However, traditional treatment methods have limited efficacy. Exosomes secreted by stem cells used for oral and maxillofacial wound healing have shown outstanding results. Stem cell-derived exosomes possess the regenerative and repair ability of stem cells. Moreover, they are nontumorigenic and have good biosafety. However, the application of natural stem cell exosomes is limited owing to their low yield, impurity, lack of targeting, and low drug delivery rate. Many modification methods have been developed to engineered stem cell exosomes with beneficial properties, such as modifying parent cells and directly processing stem cell exosomes. These methods include coincubation, genetic engineering, electroporation, ultrasound, and artificial synthesis of engineered stem cell exosomes. These engineered stem cell exosomes can cargo nucleic acids, proteins, and small molecules. This gives them anti-inflammatory and cell proliferation regulatory abilities and enables the targeted promotion of efficient soft tissue repair after trauma. Engineered stem cell exosomes can decrease inflammation, promote fibroblast proliferation, and angiogenesis, and decrease scar formation to promote oral and maxillofacial wound healing, including diabetic and burn wounds. Thus, engineered stem cell exosomes are an effective treatment that has the potential for oral and maxillofacial wound healing.