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Cui Y, Su D, Zhang J, Lam JST, Cao S, Yang Y, Piao Y, Wang Z, Zhou J, Pan H, Feng T. Dopaminergic versus anticholinergic treatment effects on physiologic complexity of hand tremor in Parkinson's disease: A randomized crossover study. CNS Neurosci Ther 2024; 30:e14516. [PMID: 37905677 PMCID: PMC11017432 DOI: 10.1111/cns.14516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2023] [Revised: 09/16/2023] [Accepted: 10/17/2023] [Indexed: 11/02/2023] Open
Abstract
AIMS Parkinsonian tremor (PT) is regulated by numerous neurophysiological components across multiple temporospatial scales. The dynamics of tremor fluctuation are thus highly complex. This study aimed to explore the effects of different medications on tremor complexity, and how the underlying factors contribute to such tremor complexity. METHODS In this study, 66 participants received a 2-mg dose of benzhexol or a pre-determined dose of levodopa at two study visits in a randomized order. Before and after taking the medications, tremor fluctuation was recorded using surface electromyography electrodes and accelerometers in resting, posture, and weighting conditions with and without a concurrent cognitive task. Tremor complexity was quantified using multiscale entropy. RESULTS Tremor complexity in resting (p = 0.002) and postural condition (p < 0.0001) was lower when participants were performing a cognitive task compared to a task-free condition. After taking levodopa and benzhexol, participants had increased (p = 0.02-0.03) and decreased (p = 0.03) tremor complexity compared to pre-medication state, respectively. Tremor complexity and its changes as induced by medications were significantly correlated with clinical ratings and their changes (β = -0.23 to -0.39; p = 0.002-0.04), respectively. CONCLUSION Tremor complexity may be a promising marker to capture the pathophysiology underlying the development of PT, aiding the characterization of the effects medications have on PT regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yusha Cui
- Department of NeurologyBeijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical UniversityBeijingChina
- China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological DiseasesBeijingChina
| | - Dongning Su
- Department of NeurologyBeijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical UniversityBeijingChina
- China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological DiseasesBeijingChina
| | - Junjiao Zhang
- Department of NeurologyBeijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical UniversityBeijingChina
- China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological DiseasesBeijingChina
| | - Joyce S. T. Lam
- Pacific Parkinson's Research Centre, Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain HealthUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouverBritish ColumbiaCanada
| | - Shuangshuang Cao
- Department of NeurologyBeijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical UniversityBeijingChina
- China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological DiseasesBeijingChina
| | - Yaqin Yang
- Department of NeurologyBeijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical UniversityBeijingChina
- China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological DiseasesBeijingChina
| | - Yingshan Piao
- Department of NeurologyBeijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical UniversityBeijingChina
- China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological DiseasesBeijingChina
| | - Zhan Wang
- Department of NeurologyBeijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical UniversityBeijingChina
- China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological DiseasesBeijingChina
| | - Junhong Zhou
- Hinda and Arthur Marcus Institute for Aging ResearchHebrew SeniorLifeRoslindaleMassachusettsUSA
- Harvard Medical SchoolBostonMassachusettsUSA
| | - Hua Pan
- Department of NeurologyBeijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Tao Feng
- Department of NeurologyBeijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical UniversityBeijingChina
- China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological DiseasesBeijingChina
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Zhang T, Dong X, Wang D, Huang C, Zhang XD. RespirAnalyzer: an R package for analyzing data from continuous monitoring of respiratory signals. BIOINFORMATICS ADVANCES 2024; 4:vbae003. [PMID: 38269257 PMCID: PMC10807906 DOI: 10.1093/bioadv/vbae003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2023] [Revised: 11/30/2023] [Accepted: 01/11/2024] [Indexed: 01/26/2024]
Abstract
Motivation The analysis of data obtained from continuous monitoring of respiratory signals (CMRS) holds significant importance in improving patient care, optimizing sports performance, and advancing scientific understanding in the field of respiratory health. Results The R package RespirAnalyzer provides an analytic tool specifically for feature extraction, fractal and complexity analysis for CMRS data. The package covers a wide and comprehensive range of data analysis methods including obtaining inter-breath intervals (IBI) series, plotting time series, obtaining summary statistics of IBI series, conducting power spectral density, multifractal detrended fluctuation analysis (MFDFA) and multiscale sample entropy analysis, fitting the MFDFA results with the extended binomial multifractal model, displaying results using various plots, etc. This package has been developed from our work in directly analyzing CMRS data and is anticipated to assist fellow researchers in computing the related features of their CMRS data, enabling them to delve into the clinical significance inherent in these features. Availability and implementation The package for Windows is available from both Comprehensive R Archive Network (CRAN): https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/RespirAnalyzer/index.html and GitHub: https://github.com/dongxinzheng/RespirAnalyzer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teng Zhang
- Department of Public Health and Medicinal Administration, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Taipa, Macau 999078, China
| | - Xinzheng Dong
- Zhuhai Laboratory of Key Laboratory of Symbolic Computation and Knowledge Engineering of Ministry of Education, Zhuhai College of Science and Technology, Zhuhai 519041, China
| | - Dandan Wang
- Department of Public Health and Medicinal Administration, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Taipa, Macau 999078, China
| | - Chen Huang
- Dr. Neher's Biophysics Laboratory for Innovative Drug Discovery, Macau University of Science and Technology, Taipa, Macau 999078, China
| | - Xiaohua Douglas Zhang
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, United States
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Platiša MM, Radovanović NN, Pernice R, Barà C, Pavlović SU, Faes L. Information-Theoretic Analysis of Cardio-Respiratory Interactions in Heart Failure Patients: Effects of Arrhythmias and Cardiac Resynchronization Therapy. ENTROPY (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 25:1072. [PMID: 37510019 PMCID: PMC10378632 DOI: 10.3390/e25071072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2023] [Revised: 07/06/2023] [Accepted: 07/13/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023]
Abstract
The properties of cardio-respiratory coupling (CRC) are affected by various pathological conditions related to the cardiovascular and/or respiratory systems. In heart failure, one of the most common cardiac pathological conditions, the degree of CRC changes primarily depend on the type of heart-rhythm alterations. In this work, we investigated CRC in heart-failure patients, applying measures from information theory, i.e., Granger Causality (GC), Transfer Entropy (TE) and Cross Entropy (CE), to quantify the directed coupling and causality between cardiac (RR interval) and respiratory (Resp) time series. Patients were divided into three groups depending on their heart rhythm (sinus rhythm and presence of low/high number of ventricular extrasystoles) and were studied also after cardiac resynchronization therapy (CRT), distinguishing responders and non-responders to the therapy. The information-theoretic analysis of bidirectional cardio-respiratory interactions in HF patients revealed the strong effect of nonlinear components in the RR (high number of ventricular extrasystoles) and in the Resp time series (respiratory sinus arrhythmia) as well as in their causal interactions. We showed that GC as a linear model measure is not sensitive to both nonlinear components and only model free measures as TE and CE may quantify them. CRT responders mainly exhibit unchanged asymmetry in the TE values, with statistically significant dominance of the information flow from Resp to RR over the opposite flow from RR to Resp, before and after CRT. In non-responders this asymmetry was statistically significant only after CRT. Our results indicate that the success of CRT is related to corresponding information transfer between the cardiac and respiratory signal quantified at baseline measurements, which could contribute to a better selection of patients for this type of therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirjana M Platiša
- Laboratory for Biosignals, Institute of Biophysics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, Višegradska 26-2, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Nikola N Radovanović
- Pacemaker Center, University Clinical Center of Serbia, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Riccardo Pernice
- Department of Engineering, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Building 9, 90128 Palermo, Italy
| | - Chiara Barà
- Department of Engineering, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Building 9, 90128 Palermo, Italy
| | - Siniša U Pavlović
- Pacemaker Center, University Clinical Center of Serbia, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Luca Faes
- Department of Engineering, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Building 9, 90128 Palermo, Italy
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Mao ZJ, Wen WW, Han YC, Dong WH, Shen LJ, Huang ZQ, Xie QL. Use of the cardiopulmonary coupling index based on refined composite multiscale entropy for prognostication of acute type A aortic dissection. Front Cardiovasc Med 2023; 10:1126889. [PMID: 36970336 PMCID: PMC10031125 DOI: 10.3389/fcvm.2023.1126889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2022] [Accepted: 02/20/2023] [Indexed: 03/10/2023] Open
Abstract
ObjectivesThe aim of this study is to assess the influence of cardiopulmonary coupling (CPC) based on RCMSE on the prediction of complications and death in patients with acute type A aortic dissection (ATAAD).BackgroundThe cardiopulmonary system may be nonlinearly regulated, and its coupling relationship with postoperative risk stratification in ATAAD patients has not been studied.MethodsThis study was a single-center, prospective cohort study (ChiCTR1800018319). We enrolled 39 patients with ATAAD. The outcomes were in-hospital complications and all-cause readmission or death at 2 years.ResultsOf the 39 participants, 16 (41.0%) developed complications in the hospital, and 15 (38.5%) died or were readmitted to the hospital during the two-year follow-up. When CPC-RCMSE was used to predict in-hospital complications in ATAAD patients, the AUC was 0.853 (p < 0.001). When CPC-RCMSE was used to predict all-cause readmission or death at 2 years, the AUC was 0.731 (p < 0.05). After adjusting for age, sex, ventilator support (days), and special care time (days), CPC-RCMSE remained an independent predictor of in-hospital complications in patients with ATAAD [adjusted OR: 0.8 (95% CI, 0.68–0.94)].ConclusionCPC-RCMSE was an independent predictor of in-hospital complications and all-cause readmission or death in patients with ATAAD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi-Jie Mao
- The Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Disease of Wenzhou, Department of Cardiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Wei-Wei Wen
- Department of Cardiovascular Care Unit, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Yi-Chen Han
- The Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Disease of Wenzhou, Department of Cardiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Wei-hua Dong
- Department of Cardiovascular Care Unit, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Li-juan Shen
- The Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Disease of Wenzhou, Department of Cardiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Zhou-Qing Huang
- The Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Disease of Wenzhou, Department of Cardiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Qiang-Li Xie
- Department of Cardiovascular Care Unit, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
- Correspondence: Qiang-Li Xie
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John AT, Barthel A, Wind J, Rizzi N, Schöllhorn WI. Acute Effects of Various Movement Noise in Differential Learning of Rope Skipping on Brain and Heart Recovery Analyzed by Means of Multiscale Fuzzy Measure Entropy. Front Behav Neurosci 2022; 16:816334. [PMID: 35283739 PMCID: PMC8914377 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2022.816334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2021] [Accepted: 01/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In search of more detailed explanations for body-mind interactions in physical activity, neural and physiological effects, especially regarding more strenuous sports activities, increasingly attract interest. Little is known about the underlying manifold (neuro-)physiological impacts induced by different motor learning approaches. The various influences on brain or cardiac function are usually studied separately and modeled linearly. Limitations of these models have recently led to a rapidly growing application of nonlinear models. This study aimed to investigate the acute effects of various sequences of rope skipping on irregularity of the electrocardiography (ECG) and electroencephalography (EEG) signals as well as their interaction and whether these depend on different levels of active movement noise, within the framework of differential learning theory. Thirty-two males were randomly and equally distributed to one of four rope skipping conditions with similar cardiovascular but varying coordinative demand. ECG and EEG were measured simultaneously at rest before and immediately after rope skipping for 25 mins. Signal irregularity of ECG and EEG was calculated via the multiscale fuzzy measure entropy (MSFME). Statistically significant ECG and EEG brain area specific changes in MSFME were found with different pace of occurrence depending on the level of active movement noise of the particular rope skipping condition. Interaction analysis of ECG and EEG MSFME specifically revealed an involvement of the frontal, central, and parietal lobe in the interplay with the heart. In addition, the number of interaction effects indicated an inverted U-shaped trend presenting the interaction level of ECG and EEG MSFME dependent on the level of active movement noise. In summary, conducting rope skipping with varying degrees of movement variation appears to affect the irregularity of cardiac and brain signals and their interaction during the recovery phase differently. These findings provide enough incentives to foster further constructive nonlinear research in exercise-recovery relationship and to reconsider the philosophy of classical endurance training.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Thomas John
- Department of Training and Movement Science, Institute of Sport Science, Johannes Gutenberg-University, Mainz, Germany
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Radovanović NN, Pavlović SU, Milašinović G, Platiša MM. Effects of Cardiac Resynchronization Therapy on Cardio-Respiratory Coupling. ENTROPY 2021; 23:e23091126. [PMID: 34573751 PMCID: PMC8472383 DOI: 10.3390/e23091126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2021] [Revised: 08/06/2021] [Accepted: 08/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
In this study, the effect of cardiac resynchronization therapy (CRT) on the relationship between the cardiovascular and respiratory systems in heart failure subjects was examined for the first time. We hypothesized that alterations in cardio-respiratory interactions, after CRT implantation, quantified by signal complexity, could be a marker of a favorable CRT response. Sample entropy and scaling exponents were calculated from synchronously recorded cardiac and respiratory signals 20 min in duration, collected in 47 heart failure patients at rest, before and 9 months after CRT implantation. Further, cross-sample entropy between these signals was calculated. After CRT, all patients had lower heart rate and CRT responders had reduced breathing frequency. Results revealed that higher cardiac rhythm complexity in CRT non-responders was associated with weak correlations of cardiac rhythm at baseline measurement over long scales and over short scales at follow-up recording. Unlike CRT responders, in non-responders, a significant difference in respiratory rhythm complexity between measurements could be consequence of divergent changes in correlation properties of the respiratory signal over short and long scales. Asynchrony between cardiac and respiratory rhythm increased significantly in CRT non-responders during follow-up. Quantification of complexity and synchrony between cardiac and respiratory signals shows significant associations between CRT success and stability of cardio-respiratory coupling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikola N. Radovanović
- Pacemaker Center, University Clinical Center of Serbia, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia; (S.U.P.); (G.M.)
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +381-11-366-3690; Fax: +381-11-362-9095
| | - Siniša U. Pavlović
- Pacemaker Center, University Clinical Center of Serbia, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia; (S.U.P.); (G.M.)
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Goran Milašinović
- Pacemaker Center, University Clinical Center of Serbia, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia; (S.U.P.); (G.M.)
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Mirjana M. Platiša
- Institute of Biophysics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, 11129 Belgrade, Serbia;
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Tang SY, Ma HP, Hung CS, Kuo PH, Lin C, Lo MT, Hsu HH, Chiu YW, Wu CK, Tsai CH, Lin YT, Peng CK, Lin YH. The Value of Heart Rhythm Complexity in Identifying High-Risk Pulmonary Hypertension Patients. ENTROPY 2021; 23:e23060753. [PMID: 34203737 PMCID: PMC8232109 DOI: 10.3390/e23060753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2021] [Revised: 06/09/2021] [Accepted: 06/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is a fatal disease—even with state-of-the-art medical treatment. Non-invasive clinical tools for risk stratification are still lacking. The aim of this study was to investigate the clinical utility of heart rhythm complexity in risk stratification for PH patients. We prospectively enrolled 54 PH patients, including 20 high-risk patients (group A; defined as WHO functional class IV or class III with severely compromised hemodynamics), and 34 low-risk patients (group B). Both linear and non-linear heart rate variability (HRV) variables, including detrended fluctuation analysis (DFA) and multiscale entropy (MSE), were analyzed. In linear and non-linear HRV analysis, low frequency and high frequency ratio, DFAα1, MSE slope 5, scale 5, and area 6–20 were significantly lower in group A. Among all HRV variables, MSE scale 5 (AUC: 0.758) had the best predictive power to discriminate the two groups. In multivariable analysis, MSE scale 5 (p = 0.010) was the only significantly predictor of severe PH in all HRV variables. In conclusion, the patients with severe PH had worse heart rhythm complexity. MSE parameters, especially scale 5, can help to identify high-risk PH patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shu-Yu Tang
- Department of Internal Medicine, National Taiwan University Hospital and National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei 100, Taiwan; (S.-Y.T.); (C.-S.H.); (P.-H.K.); (C.-K.W.)
- Department of Internal Medicine, National Taiwan University Hospital Yun-Lin Branch, Yun-Lin 640, Taiwan
| | - Hsi-Pin Ma
- Department of Electrical Engineering, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 300044, Taiwan;
| | - Chi-Sheng Hung
- Department of Internal Medicine, National Taiwan University Hospital and National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei 100, Taiwan; (S.-Y.T.); (C.-S.H.); (P.-H.K.); (C.-K.W.)
| | - Ping-Hung Kuo
- Department of Internal Medicine, National Taiwan University Hospital and National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei 100, Taiwan; (S.-Y.T.); (C.-S.H.); (P.-H.K.); (C.-K.W.)
| | - Chen Lin
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Engineering, National Central University, Taoyuan City 330, Taiwan; (C.L.); (M.-T.L.)
| | - Men-Tzung Lo
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Engineering, National Central University, Taoyuan City 330, Taiwan; (C.L.); (M.-T.L.)
| | - Hsao-Hsun Hsu
- Department of Surgery, National Taiwan University Hospital and National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei 100, Taiwan;
| | - Yu-Wei Chiu
- Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Yuan Ze University, Taoyuan City 330, Taiwan;
- Cardiology Division of Cardiovascular Medical Center, Far Eastern Memorial Hospital, New Taipei City 220, Taiwan
| | - Cho-Kai Wu
- Department of Internal Medicine, National Taiwan University Hospital and National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei 100, Taiwan; (S.-Y.T.); (C.-S.H.); (P.-H.K.); (C.-K.W.)
| | - Cheng-Hsuan Tsai
- Department of Internal Medicine, National Taiwan University Hospital and National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei 100, Taiwan; (S.-Y.T.); (C.-S.H.); (P.-H.K.); (C.-K.W.)
- Department of Internal Medicine, National Taiwan University Hospital Jin-Shan Branch, New Taipei City 220, Taiwan
- Correspondence: (C.-H.T.); (Y.-T.L.); (Y.-H.L.)
| | - Yen-Tin Lin
- Department of Internal Medicine, Taoyuan General Hospital, Taoyuan City 330, Taiwan
- Correspondence: (C.-H.T.); (Y.-T.L.); (Y.-H.L.)
| | - Chung-Kang Peng
- Division of Interdisciplinary Medicine and Biotechnology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center/Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA;
| | - Yen-Hung Lin
- Department of Internal Medicine, National Taiwan University Hospital and National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei 100, Taiwan; (S.-Y.T.); (C.-S.H.); (P.-H.K.); (C.-K.W.)
- Correspondence: (C.-H.T.); (Y.-T.L.); (Y.-H.L.)
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Development of a Neurodegenerative Disease Gait Classification Algorithm Using Multiscale Sample Entropy and Machine Learning Classifiers. ENTROPY 2020; 22:e22121340. [PMID: 33266524 PMCID: PMC7759974 DOI: 10.3390/e22121340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2020] [Revised: 11/16/2020] [Accepted: 11/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The prevalence of neurodegenerative diseases (NDD) has grown rapidly in recent years and NDD screening receives much attention. NDD could cause gait abnormalities so that to screen NDD using gait signal is feasible. The research aim of this study is to develop an NDD classification algorithm via gait force (GF) using multiscale sample entropy (MSE) and machine learning models. The Physionet NDD gait database is utilized to validate the proposed algorithm. In the preprocessing stage of the proposed algorithm, new signals were generated by taking one and two times of differential on GF and are divided into various time windows (10/20/30/60-sec). In feature extraction, the GF signal is used to calculate statistical and MSE values. Owing to the imbalanced nature of the Physionet NDD gait database, the synthetic minority oversampling technique (SMOTE) was used to rebalance data of each class. Support vector machine (SVM) and k-nearest neighbors (KNN) were used as the classifiers. The best classification accuracies for the healthy controls (HC) vs. Parkinson’s disease (PD), HC vs. Huntington’s disease (HD), HC vs. amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), PD vs. HD, PD vs. ALS, HD vs. ALS, HC vs. PD vs. HD vs. ALS, were 99.90%, 99.80%, 100%, 99.75%, 99.90%, 99.55%, and 99.68% under 10-sec time window with KNN. This study successfully developed an NDD gait classification based on MSE and machine learning classifiers.
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