Nutritional Content and Microbial Load of Fresh Liang, Gnetum gnemon var. tenerum Leaves

The genus Gnetum: Traditional use, phytochemistry, nutritional value, biosynthesis, synthesis, pharmacology, toxicology, synthetic advance, and pharmacokinetics

BACKGROUND

Gnetum is the sole genus within the family Gnetaceae. Numerous species are edible, their seeds can be roasted, and the leaves can be consumed as vegetables. Gnetum plants have been highly esteemed in traditional folk medicine worldwide for many years. An extensive review highlighting the significant value of this genus is currently unavailable.

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to systematically present the state of the art in phytochemistry, food chemistry, biosynthesis, synthesis, pharmacology, toxicology, synthetic advance, and pharmacokinetics.

METHOD

The relevant references were collected from various electronic sources, including Google Scholar, Web of Science, and reputable journals. "Gnetum" was the primary keyword used to search for publications. Data collection was conducted from 1978 to now, and more than 150 articles have been reviewed.

RESULTS

Among the 261 identified phytochemicals, 180 compounds were elucidated as stilbenoids. Gnetum metabolites also contained other classes, such as lignans, flavonoids, monophenols, alkaloids, and fatty acids. The major compound, isorhapontigenin, is considered the most important agent in the genus Gnetum. It is also noted that Gnetum plants are rich in nutritional content, including fibers, carbohydrates, vitamins, essential amino acids, and minerals. Gnetum plant extracts are safe, with low toxicity levels. In general, oxidative reactions among radicals are responsible for the biosynthesis of Gnetum stilbenoids, whereas glucuronidation of hydroxyl groups is the main pharmacokinetic action. Pharmacological activities of Gnetum constituents have been reported to include anticancer, antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antidiabetic, antihyperuricemic, anti-obesity, antimalarial, antiviral, antiplatelet, estrogenic, and protective actions for various organs. Various in vitro and in vivo pharmacological assays have successfully explained these activities through molecular mechanisms, such as the MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinase) or NF-κB (nuclear factor-kappa B) signaling pathways.

CONCLUSION

Further pharmacological assessments are warranted, particularly focusing on minor and newly discovered compounds. Enhancements in bioavailability and the development of novel synthetic agents derived from Gnetum are anticipated.

Phytochemical Profiling and Antioxidant Activities of the Most Favored Ready-to-Use Thai Curries, Pad-Ka-Proa (Spicy Basil Leaves) and Massaman

Food is one of the factors with the highest impact on human health. Today, attention is paid not only to food properties such as energy provision and palatability but also to functional aspects including phytochemical, antioxidant properties, etc. Massaman and spicy basil leaf curries are famous Thai food dishes with a good harmony of flavor and taste, derived from multiple herbs and spices, including galangal rhizomes, chili pods, garlic bulbs, peppers, shallots, and coriander seeds, that provide an array of health benefits. The characterization of phytochemicals detected by LC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS identified 99 components (Masaman) and 62 components (spicy basil leaf curry) such as quininic acid, hydroxycinnamic acid, luteolin, kaempferol, catechin, eugenol, betulinic acid, and gingerol. The cynaroside and luteolin-7-O-glucoside found in spicy basil leaf curry play a key role in antioxidant activities and were found at a significantly higher concentration than in Massaman curry. Phenolic and flavonoid compounds generally exhibit a bitter and astringent taste, but all the panelists scored both curries higher than 7 out of 9, confirming their acceptable flavor. Results suggest that the Massaman and spicy basil leaves contain various phytochemicals at different levels and may be further used as functional ingredients and nutraceutical products.