The Influence of Internet Usage Frequency on Women's Fertility Intentions-The Mediating Effects of Gender Role Attitudes

Home-based work and childbearing

We examine the timely yet greatly under-researched interplay between home-based work (HBW) and women's birth transitions. Past research has shown that HBW may facilitate and/or jeopardize work-family balance, depending on the worker's family and work circumstances. Following that research, we develop here a theoretical framework on how HBW can facilitate or hinder fertility. Using the UK Household Longitudinal Study 2009-19 and random-effects cloglog regression, we study the link between HBW and first- and second-birth risks. We find that HBW is negatively associated with the transition to motherhood and unrelated to the progression to a second child. We also show that HBW helps to enable women to have children if they would otherwise face a long commute. All in all, our findings do not support the idea that the spread of HBW will lead to an immediate increase in fertility.

The health status, social support, and subjective well-being of older individuals: evidence from the Chinese General Social Survey

Objectives

This study aims to investigate the impact of health status and social support on the subjective well-being of older individuals.

Methods

Using data from the China General Social Survey 2017, this research analyzed 5,187 Chinese citizens aged 60 years and older. The predicted effect of each variable on subjective well-being was evaluated through hierarchical regression analysis. The direct and indirect effects of social support and health status on subjective well-being are examined based on a structural equation model.

Results

The mental health and social support positively impact subjective well-being. Mental health mediates the effect of physical health on subjective well-being, and social support mediates the relationship between physical and mental health and subjective well-being.

Conclusion

The findings provide strong evidence for the interrelationship mechanisms among the factors influencing subjective well-being. Consequently, improving mental health services and social support systems is advantageous for enhancing the well-being of Chinese seniors.

Factors impacting fertility anxiety among Chinese young women with marital status differences

Background

China's societal and cultural significance placed on female fertility and the changing roles of women can lead to fertility anxiety in both married and unmarried women. This anxiety is shaped by factors such as social media use, intergroup emotions, fertility risk perceptions, and national policies. This study examines the interplay of these factors in understanding fertility anxiety among Chinese women.

Methods

This study surveyed 607 young Chinese women using the Fertility Anxiety Scale developed by Zhang and Zhao. Mplus software was used for latent class analysis of respondents' fertility anxiety. A three-step approach with multinomial logistic regression was used to explore factors influencing fertility anxiety among married and unmarried women.

Results

The latent class analysis supported a two-category model: "high fertility anxiety" (65.70 % married, 53.70 % unmarried) and "low fertility anxiety" (34.30 % married, 46.30 % unmarried). Multinomial logistic regression showed that increased social media usage intensity and perception of health-family risks correlated with higher fertility anxiety in both married and unmarried women. Among unmarried women, intergroup emotions and perceptions of occupational-economic risks also influenced fertility anxiety. Attention to national policies did not significantly impact fertility anxiety among young women.

Conclusion

This study sheds light on the complex interplay of societal and individual factors in shaping fertility anxiety among young Chinese women. It underscores the enduring cultural significance placed on female fertility and the evolving roles of women in modern China. Regardless of their marital status, both married and unmarried women experience fertility anxiety, highlighting the pervasiveness of this concern.

Chinese Women's Concept of Childbirth Based on the Social Media Topic "What Does Childbirth Mean to a Woman": Content and Thematic Analysis

BACKGROUND

In recent years, women's fertility desire has attracted increasing attention in China.

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to detect attitudes toward giving birth among young female users on Douban, a very popular Chinese social media platform.

METHODS

A total of 2634 valid posts from 2489 users discussing the topic "What does childbirth mean to a woman" on Douban were crawled and retained for analysis. We utilized content and thematic analysis methods to capture users' concepts of childbirth.

RESULTS

The findings reveal that a significant majority of users conveyed generally neutral (1060/2634, 40.24%) or negative (1051/2634, 39.90%) attitudes toward childbirth, while only about one-fifth of users expressed positive (523/2634, 19.86%) sentiments. Notably, posts with negative attitudes garnered more replies and likes, and the proportion of posts expressing negativity exhibited fluctuations over time. Health risk (339/2634, 12.87%) emerged as the most frequently cited aspect of childbirth cost, with subjective happiness and the fulfillment of mental needs identified as primary benefits. Surprisingly, only a minimal number of posts (10/2634, 0.38%) touched upon the traditional objective benefits of raising children for old-age care. Thematic analysis results suggest that discussions about fertility on social media platforms might contribute to an exaggerated perception of health risks among women. Additionally, a lack of knowledge about childbirth was observed, partially attributable to longstanding neglect and avoidance of communication on these matters, likely influenced by traditional cultural biases. Moreover, there is a prevailing assumption that women should naturally sacrifice themselves for childbirth and childcare, influenced by the idealization of the female figure. Consequently, women may harbor hesitations about having a baby, fearing the potential loss of their own identity in the process.

CONCLUSIONS

The results indicate a shift in the perception of childbirth among modern Chinese women over time, influenced by their increasing social status and the pursuit of self-realization. Implementing strategies such as public education on the health risks associated with pregnancy and delivery, safeguarding women's rights, and creating a supportive environment for mothers may enhance women's willingness to undergo childbirth.

INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT IDENTIFIER (IRRID)

RR2-10.2196/preprints.50468.

Changes of people's fertility attitudes based on analysis of online public opinion on three-child policy in China

In response to the population aging, on May 31, 2021, the Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China (CPC) proposed the policy that a couple can have three children and rolled out more supportive measures to further optimize fertility policies, which is another major initiative following the universal two-child policy introduced in November 2015. Currently, a series of population policy innovations have aroused great attractions among the public and triggered a hot debating on the Internet. People's fertility attitude tendency under different related policies can reflect their current fertility intentions. Based on the fact, this paper firstly classifies the sentiment of online comment data on the three-child policy and analyzes people's sentiment tendency toward the three-child policy from the spatio-temporal perspectives. Secondly, people's points of view on the three-child policy are summarized by using Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) thematic clustering. The reasons for the change in people's fertility attitude tendency under different fertility policies are analyzed by comparing the change in people's fertility attitude tendency with the change in people's attentions. Finally, a multiple regression equation is constructed to analyze the key factors influencing people's intention to have three children by using public opinion data and its extension data. The findings demonstrate: (1) people's fertility attitudes toward the three-child policy are negative and similar among different regions; (2) compared to the two-child policy, the percentage of negative and neutral attitudes toward the three-child policy increases, while the percentage of positive attitudes decreases; (3) the increase in fertility costs, the deterioration of women's employment environment, and the change in the concept of marriage and childbirth become important reasons for the negative change in people's fertility attitudes toward different policies. Therefore, the government should take measures to reduce the burden of childbirth and guide the correct concept of marriage and childbirth to improve people's fertility intentions.

Fertility intentions to have a second or third child among the childbearing-age population in Central China under China's three-child policy: A cross-sectional study

Background

On May 31, 2021, the Chinese authorities announced that couples can have up to three children, aiming to stimulate a rise in fertility levels. However, there is limited research on second and third birth intentions of the childbearing-age population under China's three-child policy, and the existing results are inconsistent.

Methods

A cross-sectional survey was performed in Central China from June to August 2022. A total of 13 479 respondents aged 20-49 were enrolled in the study through a multi-stage sampling method. Data on the intentions to have a second or third child were collected using anonymized questionnaires. Descriptive statistics were performed to assess fertility intentions. Multivariate logistic regression analyses were used to assess the associations between fertility intentions and the related factors.

Results

Among families with a single child, 29.7% (1444 / 4859) of the respondents intended to have a second child, while among two-child families, 10.6% (750 / 7056) respondents intended to have a third child. Overall, participants indicated that the ideal number of children was 1.85 ± 0.52. The age-specific fertility intentions of the one-child families were always higher than those of two-child families; however, based on couples' age groups, the number of ideal children reported by two-child families was always higher than that of one-child families. Fertility intentions were influenced by the respondents' gender, age, residence, marital status, educational level, average working time, childcare support, marital satisfaction, accessibility of educational resources, health condition of both spouses, loan situation, size of living house and the gender of the first child or second child.

Conclusions

The general prevalence of the second and third birth intention of the childbearing-age population in Central China is not high. To increase the birth rate, it is necessary to create a favourable fertility context and offer supportive measures.

The impact of COVID-19 on the intention of third-child in China: an empirical analysis based on survey data

BACKGROUND

Against the grim background of declining intention to have children, the ravages of COVID-19 have pushed China and the world into a more complex social environment. To adapt to the new situation, the Chinese government implemented the three-child policy in 2021.

OBJECTIVE

COVID-19 pandemic indirectly affects the country's internal economic development, employment, fertility plans or intention, and other major issues related to the people's livelihood, while undermining the stable operation of society. This paper explores the question that will COVID-19 pandemic affect Chinese people's intention to have a third child. And What are the relevant factors inside?

METHOD

The data in this paper are from the Survey released by the Population Policy and Development Research Center of Chongqing Technology and Business University (PDPR-CTBU), including 10,323 samples from mainland China. This paper uses the logit regression model and KHB mediated effect model (a binary response model given by Karlson, Holm, and Breen) to investigate the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and other factors on Chinese residents' intention to have a third child.

RESULTS

The results suggest that the COVID-19 pandemic has a negative effect on Chinese residents' intention to have a third child. In-depth research on the mediating effect of KHB shows that COVID-19 pandemic will further inhibit residents' intention to have a third child by affecting their childcare arrangements, increasing their childcare costs, and increasing their exposure to occupational hazards.

CONTRIBUTION

This paper is more pioneering in focusing on the impact of the COVID-19 epidemic on the intention to have three children in China. The study provides empirical evidence for understanding the impact of COVID-19 epidemic on fertility intentions, albeit in the context of policy support.

Second-Child Fertility Intentions among Urban Women in China: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

With the adjustment of China's fertility policy, the topic of women's fertility has attracted much attention. In particular, urban women face a difficult choice between family and work. This study analyzed the prevalence and determinants of second-child fertility intention among urban women in China and aimed to provide evidence for improving fertility rate measures. A systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted using quantitative primary studies. We identified 16 cross-sectional studies that investigated a total of 24,979 urban women. The prevalence of second-child fertility intentions was 37%. A subgroup analysis revealed that the highest prevalence was observed between 2016 and 2017, and the lowest was observed in first-tier cities. Meta-analyses indicated that 18 factors were significantly associated with second-child fertility intentions, including demographic factors, fertility attitude, husbands, children, parents, or others. The findings of this study highlight the low second-child fertility intentions among urban women in China. Therefore, policymakers should consider various aspects, gradually optimizing fertility-supporting facilities, while encouraging fertility.

Gender role attitudes and work-family conflict: A multiple mediating model including moderated mediation analysis

With the fierce labor market competition, the family population's size continues to expand, and the conflict between work and family requirements for individual roles becomes increasingly intense. Most studies focus on work-family conflict as an antecedent variable, and few studies use work-family conflict as an outcome variable. This study aimed to explore the underlying mechanism of the relationship between gender role attitudes and work-family conflict. Two models were tested using conditional process analysis for testing direct and indirect effects on a sample of 324 employees: A serial multiple mediation model, and the multiple mediation model including the moderating role of education level and subjective socioeconomic status. The results suggested that (1) gender role attitudes significantly and positively predicted work-family conflict. (2) Parental sacrifice and subjective well-being played multiple mediating roles between gender role attitudes and work-family conflict. (3) Education level moderated the relationship between gender role attitudes and parental sacrifice, as evidenced by the fact that low education level amplified the positive predictive effect of gender role attitudes on parental sacrifice. (4) Subjective socioeconomic status moderated the relationship between gender role attitudes and subjective well-being, suggesting that high subjective socioeconomic status amplified the negative predictive effect of gender role attitudes on subjective well-being. This work contributes to the understanding of the process underlying the relationship between gender role attitudes and work-family conflict, and to the literature reporting the possible moderated role of education level and subjective socioeconomic status on the influence outcomes of gender role attitudes. Theoretical and practical implications are also discussed.

Fertility Intention to Have a Third Child in China following the Three-Child Policy: A Cross-Sectional Study

China's three-child policy was implemented in May 2021 to stimulate a rise in fertility levels. However, few previous studies have explored fertility intentions to have a third child and have only focused on childless or one-child populations, resulting in a gap in findings between fertility intention and fertility behavior. Thus, we conducted a nationwide cross-sectional study on 1308 participants with two children. Results showed that only 9.6% of participants reported planning to have a third child and 80.2% of the population had heard of the policy but had no idea of the detailed contents. Participants with two daughters (OR = 3.722, 95% CI = 2.304-6.013) were willing to have one more child. Instrumental values (OR = 1.184, 95% CI = 1.108-1.265) and policy support (OR = 1.190, 95% CI = 1.124-1.259) were the facilitators. Perceived risk (OR = 0.883, 95% CI = 0.839-0.930) and higher educational level (OR = 0.693, 95% CI = 0.533-0.900) were the leading barriers to having one more child. Therefore, the government should deepen parents' understanding of the "three-child policy" and devise ways of reducing the negative impacts of having a third child to boost the intention to have more children. Our proposed approach can also be used to better understand the reasons for low fertility rates in other countries.

Did the cyberspace foster the entrepreneurship of women with children in rural China?

Female-entrepreneurship plays a significantly important role in rural areas of China today. In fact, it is a driving force behind inclusive economic development of the country as a whole. However, notably very little literature out there has focused on the impact of how widespread usage of information technology tools affects the mothers entrepreneurship in the outskirt regions. Here, in this paper, the authors attempt to explore the finer details of such an impact by utilizing the data from the 2017 China Integrated Social Survey; along with the IV-Probit model to explore the transmission mechanism. Interestingly enough, it was discovered that Internet applications and tools do indeed increase entrepreneurship among women with children by a roughly 7.88%. In addition, this paper finds that the utilization of such “InfoTech” promote a continuous progress in entrepreneurship among those women with children who endeavor to start a self-managed enterprise in the less developed areas. Lastly, when looking the analysis of the transmission mechanism, this paper found that the role of Internet-usage in promoting rural mothers entrepreneurship was mainly through three factors – the gender equality effect, the information learning effect, and the financing effect. This accumulated data will be thoroughly presented here in the ensuing sections.

Prediction models and associated factors on the fertility behaviors of the floating population in China

The floating population has been growing rapidly in China, and their fertility behaviors do affect urban management and development. Based on the data set of the China Migrants Dynamic Survey in 2016, the logistic regression model and multiple linear regression model were used to explore the related factors of fertility behaviors among the floating populace. The artificial neural network model, the naive Bayes model, and the logistic regression model were used for prediction. The findings showed that age, gender, ethnic, household registration, education level, occupation, duration of residence, scope of migration, housing, economic conditions, and health services all affected the reproductive behavior of the floating population. Among them, the improvement duration of post-migration residence and family economic conditions positively impacted their fertility behavior. Non-agricultural new industry workers with college degrees or above living in first-tier cities were less likely to have children and more likely to delay childbearing. Among the prediction models, both the artificial neural network model and logistic regression model had better prediction effects. Improving the employment and income of new industry workers, and introducing preferential housing policies might improve their probability of bearing children. The artificial neural network and logistic regression model could predict individual fertility behavior and provide a scientific basis for the urban population management.

How Media Use Influences the Fertility Intentions Among Chinese Women of Reproductive Age: A Perspective of Social Trust

Background

The low fertility level has become a serious social problem in China. Previous research has argued the significant influence of media use and social trust on fertility intentions, but the interaction between the two variables and how they influence fertility intentions remain further investigation. This study explored the influence mechanism of media use on Chinese women's fertility intentions from the perspective of social trust.

Methods

This study collected data from the 2017 China General Social Survey, investigated the relationships between variables through bivariate correlation coefficients, and explored the differences in fertility intentions among women of reproductive age (20–49). Also, this paper examined the influence of media use and social trust by regression analysis and tested the mediating role of social trust between media use and fertility intentions with Bootstrap sampling.

Results

Women with different media use preferences, education levels, and family incomes have significant differences (p < 0.01) in fertility intentions. New media use negatively influences women's fertility intentions, while traditional media use has no significant influence on women's fertility intentions. Social trust significantly influenced women's fertility intentions and partially mediated the impact of new media use on fertility intentions.

Conclusion

Online communication influences fertility intentions among Chinese women of reproductive age. It tends to influence their social trust by amplifying negative social news, affecting their fertility intentions further. This paper suggests the importance of strengthening social trust and online agenda-setting to improve women's fertility intentions that strategic information communication can change their perceptions of social trust.

Third birth intention of the childbearing-age population in mainland China and sociodemographic differences: a cross-sectional survey

BACKGROUND

Global fertility declines have become an inevitable trend, and many countries are adopting policies to drive fertility increases. Fertility intention plays an important role in predicting fertility behavior. The Chinese government has recently issued the 'three-child' policy, and there is still little research on the third birth intention of the childbearing-age population. Therefore, the aim of this study is to investigate the prevalence and related reasons of third birth intention in the childbearing-age population in mainland China, and analyze the sociodemographic differences.

METHOD

A cross-sectional survey was conducted in mainland China from June to July 2021. A total of 15,332 childbearing-age participants responded and completed the Fertility Intention Questionnaire online through the Wenjuanxing Platform. Data were explored and analyzed by SPSS (version 22.0) software. Descriptive statistics were used to describe the current situation and reasons of third birth intention. Binary logistic regression analysis was applied to assess the influencing factors in the sociodemographic level.

RESULTS

The mean age of the participants was 32.9 ± 5.94 years. Only 12.2% of participants reported having third birth intention. The subjective norm of having both son and daughter (22.0%) and busy at work (29.2%) accounted for the largest proportion in the reasons of acceptance and rejection, respectively. Age has negative impact on third birth intention (OR = 0.960). Men were 2.209 times more likely to have three children than women (P < 0.001). With the improvement of education and family monthly income, the birth intention shows a downward trend. Compared with Han nationalities, first marriage and city residents, the ethnic minorities, remarriage and rural residents have stronger birth intention (all P < 0.05). And individuals with two existing children are inclined to have the third child (OR = 1.839).

CONCLUSION

The third birth intention in the childbearing-age population in China is still low after the announcement of the three-child policy. It is necessary to create a favorable fertility context for childbearing-age group with high level of third birth intention, like younger, male, minority, remarriage, with lower education and family monthly income, living in rural and two existing children. Furthermore, removing barriers for those unintended is also prominent to ensure the impetus of policy.