Does Risk Awareness of COVID-19 Affect Visits to National Parks? Analyzing the Tourist Decision-Making Process Using the Theory of Planned Behavior

Risk perceptions and behaviors concerning rural tourism and economic-political drivers of COVID-19 policy in 2020

When COVID-19 was first introduced to the United States, state and local governments enacted a variety of policies intended to mitigate the virulence of the epidemic. At the time, the most effective measures to prevent the spread of COVID-19 included stay-at-home orders, closing of nonessential businesses, and mask mandates. Although it was well known that regions with high population density and cold climates were at the highest risk for disease spread, rural counties that are economically reliant on tourism were incentivized to enact fewer precautions against COVID-19. The uncertainty of the COVID-19 pandemic, the multiple policies to reduce transmission, and the changes in outdoor recreation behavior had a significant impact on rural tourism destinations and management of protected spaces. We utilize fine-scale incidence and demographic data to study the relationship between local economic and political concerns, COVID-19 mitigation measures, and the subsequent severity of outbreaks throughout the continental United States. We also present results from an online survey that measured travel behavior, health risk perceptions, knowledge and experience with COVID-19, and evaluation of destination attributes by 407 out-of-state visitors who traveled to Maine from 2020 to 2021. We synthesize this research to present a narrative on how perceptions of COVID-19 risk and public perceptions of rural tourism put certain communities at greater risk of illness throughout 2020. This research could inform future rural destination management and public health policies to help reduce negative socioeconomic, health and environmental impacts of pandemic-derived changes in travel and outdoor recreation behavior.

Exploring the motivations for rural tourism in China during the COVID-19: The existence of a single motivation

The COVID-19 epidemic had an appropriate impact on tourists' trip psychology and their subsequent behavior in participating in rural tourism activities. The purpose of this paper is to explore the types of motivations Chinese tourists have for participating in rural tourism in the context of COVID-19, and to comparatively analyze the similarities and differences in motivations for rural tourism during the epidemic and in normal times. An interpretive paradigm qualitative data collection method was used: semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions. Respondents were 21 tourists, who were selected through purposive and snowball sampling. Through content analysis, we found that rural tourism motivations during the epidemic included both diversified and singular motivations. The pull effect of rural destinations is related to distance and ease of realization. For rural areas in close proximity, a single motivation is sufficient to drive tourists. In addition, we found that there was no "altruistic motivation" for rural tourism during the COVID-19 period, but "altruistic feelings" for the preservation of ancient villages were generated during rural tourism. Finally, we discuss the theoretical and practical significance of this study and make suggestions for future research. The study explains tourists' companionship preferences, activity choices, and affective changes, and provides a basis for the operation and advertising strategies of rural destinations to attract tourists and promote their sustainable development.

Role of Trust, Risk Perception, and Perceived Benefit in COVID-19 Vaccination Intention of the Public

COVID-19 vaccination is an effective method for dealing with the COVID-19 pandemic. This study proposed and validated a theoretical intention model for explaining the COVID-19 vaccination intention (CVI) of the public. The theoretical intention model incorporated trust in vaccines, two types of risk perception (risk perception of COVID-19 and risk perception of COVID-19 vaccination), and perceived benefit into a theory of planned behavior (TPB). Structural equation modeling was utilized to test the theoretical intention model with data collected from 816 Chinese adults in China. The results confirmed the crucial role of trust in vaccines, risk perception, and perceived benefit in shaping the CVI of the public. In addition, TPB was found to be applicable in a research context. The theoretical intention model accounted for 78.8% of the variance in CVI. Based on the findings, several practical recommendations for improving COVID-19 vaccination rates were discussed.

A comparative study of eight COVID-19 protective measures and their impact on Swiss tourists' travel intentions

A comparative vignette-based experimental survey design incorporating various socio-psychological factors, linked to the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), the Health Belief Model (HBM) and the Domain-Specific Risk-Taking scale (DOSPERT) was carried out to test variations in eight travel-related COVID-19 protective measures on Swiss tourists' travel intentions. Among the tested measures, vaccination passports, surgical masks and quarantining are those that stand out the most, with surgical masks having the greatest acceptance and willingness to adopt while traveling. Quarantining, on the other hand, appears to have a deterrent influence on travel intentions, and vaccination passports have the lowest perceived barriers during travel, but the highest perceived benefits in mitigating the spread of the infection. The discussion of individual differences has specific implications for tourism management against the background of our empirical findings.

Reprint of: Exploring tourists' motivations, constraints, and negotiations regarding outdoor recreation trips during COVID-19 through a focus group study

The current COVID-19 outbreak has duly influenced tourists' psychology and subsequently their behavior and decision making to participate in outdoor activities. The purpose of this paper is to illuminate tourists' motivations, perceived constraints, and negotiation strategies to participate in outdoor recreation trips, within the current COVID-19 context. To explore and categorize motivating factors, constraints, and negotiation strategies, we employed a qualitative approach via semi-structured online focus group discussion with 16 tourists (mostly residents of Utah, United States) during late summer 2020. First, COVID-19 related restrictions and fewer opportunities to go outdoors were found to encourage outdoor recreation, for novelty-seeking and experiencing normalcy. Through content analysis, we found that tourists experience a blend of personal, social, practical, and ethical constraints. Additionally, we identified how tourists negotiate their constraints through different ways: by extensive planning and information searching, avoiding crowds, and changing leisure aspirations. Finally, we discuss theoretical and managerial implications of the study, followed by recommendations for future research.

Management implications

Understanding of tourists' motivations, constraints, and negotiation strategies-relevant to outdoor recreation trips-provides several managerial implications to destination managers and marketers, as outlined below:•Lack of centralized and reliable information was frequently cited as a constraint in the focus group discussions. In order to provide adequate and timely information to potential participations, we proposed a novel website template including details about information to be presented.•As our study sheds light on tourists' companionship preferences, activity choice, and evaluation of a destination's COVID-related operational practices, we propose several advertising strategies and destination operational guidelines to attract tourists.

Changes in travel behaviors and intentions during the COVID-19 pandemic and recovery period: A case study of China

The COVID-19 pandemic severely hit the tourism industry in China and worldwide. Chinese government adopted extensive nonpharmaceutical interventions (NPIs) to control it. COVID-19 has been well under control since April 2020 and China entered into a unique recovering period. The aim of this study is to examine how the COVID-19 pandemic changed residents' travel behaviors and intentions and investigate the theoretical factors associated with these changes during the pandemic and the recovery period. This study used a mixed-methods approach by combining quantitative surveys (N = 1,423) and qualitative interviews (N = 34). We extended the theory of planned behavior (TPB) to include other emerging factors in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, such as risk perception, tourist trust, and charitable attitude. Our findings show that COVID-19 changed respondents' travel preferences in different ways, for example, tend to choose natural/outdoor/uncrowded attractions over cultural/indoor/crowded attractions. Second, respondents' domestic travel behaviors and intentions were positively associated with constructs in TPB, charitable attitude to contribute to the recovery of the tourism industry, tourists' trust in domestic COVID-19 control, and awareness of destinations' promotion strategies, while domestic travel intentions were negatively associated with risk perception. Third, concerns about the international COVID-19 control and travel restrictions were the two major factors affecting residents' intentions to travel abroad. Finally, we highlighted the management implications including implementing strict preventive measures while improving the effectiveness, increasing tourists’ trust, and adopting diverse marketing and promotion strategies.

The Perceptions and Use of Urban Neighborhood Parks Since the Outbreak of COVID-19: A Case Study in South Korea

As the COVID-19 pandemic continues, the stress of city dwellers is increasing, and some adapt to the pandemic by pursuing physical and psychological well-being in neighborhood parks. To improve the resilience of the social-ecological system against COVID-19, it is important to understand the mechanism of adaptation by examining the perception and use of neighborhood parks. The purpose of this study is to investigate users' perceptions and use of urban neighborhood parks since the outbreak of COVID-19 in South Korea using systems thinking. To verify the hypotheses about the relationship between variables involved in COVID-19 adaptive feedback, two research objectives were set. First, this study determined the causal structure leading to park visits using systems thinking. Second, the relationship between stress, motivation, and the frequency of visits to neighborhood parks was empirically verified. To conduct the research, the system of use and perceptions of parks were analyzed through a causal loop diagram to determine the feedback between psychological variables. Then, a survey was conducted to verify the relationship between stress, motivation for visits, and visit frequency, which are the major variables derived from the causal structure. A total of three feedback loops were derived in the first step, including a loop in which COVID-19 stress was relieved by visits to parks and a loop in which COVID-19 stress worsened due to crowding in parks. Finally, the relationship of stress leading to park visits was confirmed, and the empirical analysis showed that anger about contagion and social disconnection were linked as motives for park visits, and that park visits were mainly motivated by the desire to go out. The neighborhood park functions as an adaptive space for the stress of COVID-19 and will maintain its role as social distancing becomes more important to various socio-ecological changes. The strategies driven by the pandemic can be adapted in park planning to recover from stress and improve resilience.

Impacts of travel bans and travel intention changes on aviation emissions due to Covid-19 pandemic

The Covid-19 pandemic negatively affected many sectors including aviation and travel. Travel bans and forced lockdowns prevented transportation activity, especially air travel. Accordingly, huge amounts of emission reductions occurred. On the other hand, travel restrictions are not the only cause of emissions reductions. Changing travel intention in the era of Covid-19 is another important factor that affects aviation emissions. This paper aims to investigate the Landing/Take-Off (LTO) emission changes at Turkish airports. An emission inventory has been implemented for the years 2019 and 2020 to reveal the impacts of Covid-19 on aviation emissions. Domestic, international, and cargo flights have been included in the inventory. According to the results, total emissions of SO2, CO2, CO, NOx, NMVOC, CH4, N2O, and PM2.5 have decreased in 2020 compared to 2019 by 49.8%, 49.7%, 41.0%, 52.6%, 40.0%, 33.8%, 49.8%, and 50.3%, respectively. Total CO2 reductions in the Q2, Q3, and Q4 periods of 2020 compared to that of 2019 are 87%, 50% and 43%, respectively. Another aim of this paper is to find the underlying reasons for emission reductions. For Turkish airports, emission reductions have resulted from travel bans in Q2. After the relaxation of restrictions with the declaration of the "New Normal" in Turkey, flight traffic rebounded to a certain level but was lower than 2019 levels. Therefore, changing travel intention is the main cause of emission reductions in Q3 and Q4 of 2020. The results of this study contribute to both the areas of air pollution and tourism management.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10668-023-02916-8.

Impacts of COVID-19 on tourism and management response from Banff National Park, Canada

The COVID-19 pandemic posed challenges to the tourism sector globally. We investigated changes in visitor demographics, satisfaction level, and its determinants pre- and peri-COVID-19. Data were collected using questionnaire surveys in 2019 and 2021 within Banff National Park (BNP). The data analyses were based on a sample size of 1183 respondents by conducting factor analysis, correlation analysis and stepwise regression analysis. Results highlight that there were fewer international visitors and more local and domestic visitors during the pandemic. Park attributes were evaluated at a higher satisfaction level peri-COVID-19. The quality of the Park facilities and services were the most important satisfaction determinants pre- and peri-COVID-19, and all the Park COVID-19 measures and actions received positive experience from visitors. This research fills this knowledge gap by developing a better understanding in the change of visitor demographics and satisfaction level in BNP under the context of the pandemic. It also provides implication for both scholars and practitioners to understand the impacts of the pandemic on Park visitation. The study can provide insights for utilizing the pandemic as a transformative strength and for mitigating its negative impact on tourism industry.

The transcultural adaptation and validation of the Chinese version of the Attitudes Toward Recognizing Early and Noticeable Deterioration scale

Background

In China, clinical deterioration events present a real problem for every clinical nurse. Patient deterioration is determined in part by nurses' attitudes toward early recognition of clinical deterioration. However, research on attitudes toward the early identification of clinical deterioration is still in its infancy, and even less research has been done on ward nurses' attitudes toward the early identification of clinical deterioration. To drive behavioral change and improve the care of deteriorating patients, nurses need comprehensive, valid, and reliable tools to assess their attitudes toward early identification of deterioration.

Objective

In this study, we aimed to translate the Attitudes Toward Recognizing Early and Noticeable Deterioration (ATREND) scale into Chinese and to assess its validity and reliability tests.

Methods

From March 2022 to July 2022, the ATREND scale was translated, back-translated, and cross-culturally adapted into the Chinese version using a modified Brislin translation model. Then, 460 ward nurses were recruited from tertiary Grade A general hospitals in two cities: Shenyang and Jinzhou in Liaoning Province, China. Reliability analyses were conducted using internal consistency, split-half, and test-retest reliability. We convened a committee of experts to determine the validity of the content. Tests of the structural validity of the scale were conducted using exploratory and validation factor analyses.

Results

The Cronbach's α value of the Chinese version of the ATREND scale was 0.804, and the Cronbach's α value of the dimensions ranged from 0.782 to 0.863. The split-half reliability and test-retest reliability were 0.846 and 0.711, respectively. Furthermore, the scale has an index of content validity of 0.922, indicating a high level of content validity. In exploratory factor analysis, eigenvalues, total variance explained, and scree plot supported a three-factor structure. The three-factor model supported by this study was confirmed by confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Moreover, the model fitting indexes (e.g., χ ²/DF = 1.498, GFI = 0.954, RMSEA = 0.047) were all within acceptable limits based on the CFA.

Conclusion

The Chinese version of the scale is reliable and valid among ward nurses. Nursing educators and clinicians will be able to develop targeted educational programs to enhance the competence and behaviors of Chinese ward nurses in recognizing clinical deterioration. It will be based on the developed scale to assess Chinese nurses' attitudes and practices regarding early recognition of clinical deterioration. As a result, it is necessary to consider the Chinese scale's three-factor structure. The developed three-factor structured scale will assess Chinese ward nurses' attitudes and practices toward patient observation and vital sign-monitoring empowerment, enlightening them on the importance of patient observation, encouraging ward nurses to use a wider range of patient assessment techniques to capture early signs of clinical deterioration, and helping ward nurses to develop clinical confidence to monitor clinical deterioration.

A Spatial Adaptation Strategy for Safe Campus Open Spaces during the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Case of Korea University

Open spaces on campus offer various opportunities for students. However, the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic has affected students’ comfort when occupying open spaces on campus. The purpose of this study is to investigate possible spatial adaptation strategies for safe campus open spaces during the COVID-19 pandemic. For this research, a case study was conducted using a mixed methodology with behavioral mapping that investigated students’ perceptions at Korea University, Seoul, Korea. A qualitative approach was first conducted with behavioral mapping; the results show that despite some behavioral and spatial changes, people still occupy open spaces on campus for various meaningful activities. A quantitative approach with structural equation modeling (SEM) was also conducted to understand the required spatial modifications to improve the safety of open spaces on campus. The positive correlation between (i) social distancing measures, (ii) health protocols, and (iii) accessibility and occupational comfort with (iv) individuals’ fear of COVID-19 as a positive moderation are the four hypotheses proposed in this study. The results suggest that social distancing measures have no correlation with occupational comfort, while accessibility has the largest positive correlation. Suggestions are presented for providing accessible and equally distributed open spaces on campus to avoid overcrowding. Spatial health protocols are also found to positively correlate with occupational comfort, and the perception of the severity of COVID-19 strengthens this correlation. Tangible physical measures to prevent the spread of the virus are necessary to improve students’ sense of comfort and safety in open spaces on campus.

Pointers to Interventions for Promoting COVID-19 Protective Measures in Tourism: A Modelling Approach Using Domain-Specific Risk-Taking Scale, Theory of Planned Behaviour, and Health Belief Model

Based on the factors of the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB), the Health Belief Model (HBM), and the DOSPERT scale, used to measure general risk-taking behaviour, a combined model has been developed for investigating tourists’ intentions to implement protective measures against the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). The purpose of the study is to formulate a model that Swiss tourism practitioners can use to understand tourists’ decision-making regarding the acceptance and proper implementation of non-pharmaceutical interventions (NPIs). A large-scale cross-sectional population study that is representative for the Swiss population has been designed to validate the model (N = 1,683; 39% response rate). In our empirical investigation, a simple regression analysis is used to detect significant factors and their strength. Our empirical findings show that the significant effects can be ordered regarding descending effect size from severity (HBM), attitude (TPB), perceived behavioural control (TPB), subjective norm (TPB), self-efficacy (HBM), and perceived barriers (HBM) to susceptibility (HBM). Based on this information, intervention strategies and corresponding protective measures were linked to the social-psychological factors based on an expert workshop. Low-cost interventions for tourists (less time, less money, and more comfort), such as the free provision of accessories (free mask and sanitizers) or free testing (at cable cars), can increase the perceived behavioural control and lower the perceived barriers and thus increase the acceptance of this protective measure.

Research on the Impact of Media Credibility on Risk Perception of COVID-19 and the Sustainable Travel Intention of Chinese Residents Based on an Extended TPB Model in the Post-Pandemic Context

This study is the first to examine the impact of media credibility on the sustainable travel intention of Chinese residents in the post-pandemic context. Specifically, the mechanisms by which media credibility influenced the sustainable travel intentions of Chinese residents through risk perception are studied. This study developed an extended theory of planned behavior (TPB) model and used a structural equation model (SEM) to analyze the 1219 valid samples received from online questionnaires. The results revealed that media credibility has a negative impact on risk perception of COVID-19 in the post-pandemic context. This suggested that trusted media, messages, and information sources can reduce the risk perception of COVID-19 when individuals contemplate travel. Risk perception negatively affects subjective norms, attitudes, and perceived behavioral control, while these three variables positively influence sustainable travel intention. Significantly, subjective norms have a stronger impact on the sustainable travel intention of Chinese residents than the remaining variables, demonstrating that, in a collective society, an individual’s intention to travel is more susceptible to influence by government sanctions as well as the unsupported opinions of their family and friends. This study makes up for the lack of focus on the media in sustainable tourism research and provides novel insights for future studies.

An analysis of the competitiveness of the tourism industry in a context of economic recovery following the COVID19 pandemic

Business activities within the tourism industry are especially suffering from the consequences of the COVID19 pandemic. Those countries whose economy depends largely on tourism will experience a troublesome situation for years to come. Their return to a normal situation will be conditioned by the competitiveness of their tourism sector. The study begins by pinpointing the countries that have been more hardly stricken by the pandemic and in which tourism accounts for a greater share of the GDP. A comparative analysis of the competitiveness of these countries with that of world-leading countries will be carried out so as to conclude which will face the recovery period in a more vulnerable situation. The measurement of tourism competitiveness will be supported by the creation of a synthetic indicator based on the P₂ distance method. A group of 13 countries has been identified as the most vulnerable, and it is advisable to act urgently in the following areas: the promotion of cultural elements and the historical and artistic heritage, the protection of natural areas, the availability of information and communication technologies, the international openness of the destination, and the availability of transportation infrastructures and tourist services.

Exploring tourists' motivations, constraints, and negotiations regarding outdoor recreation trips during COVID-19 through a focus group study

The current COVID-19 outbreak has duly influenced tourists' psychology and subsequently their behavior and decision making to participate in outdoor activities. The purpose of this paper is to illuminate tourists' motivations, perceived constraints, and negotiation strategies to participate in outdoor recreation trips, within the current COVID-19 context. To explore and categorize motivating factors, constraints, and negotiation strategies, we employed a qualitative approach via semi-structured online focus group discussion with 16 tourists (mostly residents of Utah, United States) during late summer 2020. First, COVID-19 related restrictions and fewer opportunities to go outdoors were found to encourage outdoor recreation, for novelty-seeking and experiencing normalcy. Through content analysis, we found that tourists experience a blend of personal, social, practical, and ethical constraints. Additionally, we identified how tourists negotiate their constraints through different ways: by extensive planning and information searching, avoiding crowds, and changing leisure aspirations. Finally, we discuss theoretical and managerial implications of the study, followed by recommendations for future research.

Management implications

Understanding of tourists' motivations, constraints, and negotiation strategies-relevant to outdoor recreation trips-provides several managerial implications to destination managers and marketers, as outlined below:•Lack of centralized and reliable information was frequently cited as a constraint in the focus group discussions. In order to provide adequate and timely information to potential participations, we proposed a novel website template including details about information to be presented.•As our study sheds light on tourists' companionship preferences, activity choice, and evaluation of a destination's COVID-related operational practices, we propose several advertising strategies and destination operational guidelines to attract tourists.