Nutritional and Other Trace Elements and Their Associations in Raw King Bolete Mushrooms, Boletus edulis

Selected detrimental and essential elements in fruiting bodies of culinary and toxic medicinal macroscopic fungi growing in the Bohemian Forest, the Czech Republic

Selected wild-growing edible fungi (Boletus edulis, Neoboletus luridiformis, Cantharellus cibarius, Macrolepiota procera, Amanita rubescens, Russula virescens, Lycoperdon perlatum, and Flammulina velutipes) along with the poisonous medicinal species Amanita muscaria were collected from five sites in the Bohemian Forest, the Czech Republic and analyzed regarding the contents of 19 elements (Ag, Al, As, Be, Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Li, Mg, Mn, Ni, Pb, Rb, Se, Tl, and Zn) in their fruiting bodies. The contents of the elements as well as bioconcentration factors (ratios of the element content in dry matter of the mushroom to the content in the soil; BCF) were significantly species dependent. In general, the analysis revealed the most intensive accumulation of Cd, Rb, Ag, Cu, Se, and Zn in the studied mushrooms. B. edulis accumulated Ag, Se, Cd, Rb, Cu, and Zn with average BCF of 31, 25, 18, 13, 3.9, and 2.6, respectively. On the other hand, A. rubescens accumulated Cd, Rb, Ag, Cu, Zn, and As (BCF of 41, 27, 4.8, 3.3, 2.1, and 1.4). The data concerning the detrimental elements in sporocarps of edible mushrooms indicate no negative effect on human health if the fungi are consumed occasionally or as a delicacy.

A critical review of the occurrence of scandium and yttrium in mushrooms

Scandium (Sc) and Yttrium (Y) along with the other rare earth elements (REE) are being increasingly extracted to meet the escalating demand for their use in modern high technology applications. Concern has been voiced that releases from this escalating usage may pollute environments, including the habitats of wild species of mushrooms, many of which are foraged and prized as foods. This review collates the scarce information on occurrence of these elements in wild mushrooms and also reviews soil substrate levels, including forested habitats. Sc and Y occurred at lower levels in mushrooms (<1.0-1000 µg kg-1 dw for Sc and<1.8-1500 µg kg-1 dw for Y) compared to the corresponding range for the sum of the lanthanides in the same species (16-8400 µg kg-1 dw). The reported species showed considerably more variation in Y contents than Sc which show a narrow median distribution range (20-40 µg kg-1 dw). Data allowing temporal examination was very limited but showed no increasing trend between the 1970s to 2019, nor were any geographical influences apparent. The study of the essentiality, toxicity or other effects of REE including Sc and Y at levels of current dietary intake are as yet undefined. High intake scenarios using the highest median concentrations of Sc and Y, resulted in daily intakes of 1.2 and 3.3 μg respectively from 300 g portions of mushroom meals. These could be considered as low unless future toxicological insights make these intake levels relevant.

Rare Earth Elements in Boletus edulis (King Bolete) Mushrooms from Lowland and Montane Areas in Poland

Mining/exploitation and commercial applications of the rare-earth elements (REEs: La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, and Lu) in the past 3 decades have raised concerns about their emissions to the environment, possible accumulation in food webs, and occupational/environmental health effects. The occurrence and distribution of REEs Y and Sc in the fruitbodies of Boletus edulis collected from geographically diverse regions in Poland were studied in 14 composite samples that were derived from 261 whole fruiting bodies. Individual REE median concentrations ranged from 0.4–95 µg kg⁻¹ dry weight (dw). The summed REE concentrations varied widely, with a median value of 310 µg kg⁻¹ dw and a range of 87 to 758 µg kg⁻¹. The Sc and Y median concentrations (dw) were 35 and 42 µg kg⁻¹, respectively. Ce, La, and Nd, with median values of 95, 51, and 32 µg kg⁻¹, respectively, showed the highest occurrence. B. edulis collected from a forested area formerly used as a military shooting range—possibly a historically contaminated site—had an elevated summed REE content of 1796 µg kg⁻¹. REE concentrations were generally low in Polish King Bolete. Dietary intake from a mushroom meal was negligible, posing no health risk to consumers.

Edible mushroom industry in China: current state and perspectives

China is one of the largest producers and exporters of wild edible fungi in the world. Cultivation mushroom production value ranks within the top five after grain, vegetable, fruit, and edible oil plantation, greater than sugar, cotton, and tobacco business. More than 40 new varieties of high market value mushrooms from our group were highlighted in this article. Mushroom cultivations have a high impact on China's poverty alleviation program, with earnings at least ten times higher than rice and corn. The products were exported to 137 countries and regions, mainly to Japan, South Korea, ASEAN, the USA, and the European Union, among these, Japan is the biggest import market for cultivated mushrooms from China. Rapid development in the market and an increased demand for edible fungi generally enhance the economy of domestic edible fungi. We are the leading research group in logical farm design that is HACCP-certified to reduce the cost of investment for agriculture, thus broadening the consumption market of edible mushrooms and forming a demand-oriented leading industry for the promotion of human health. The enterprise needs to re-examine the operation plan and the strategic thinking to improve the fundamental drivers based on the available resources of the locality. Mushrooms growing intergrate with upgraded technologies and equipment to become smart agriculture which have smart production and intelligent factories. The purpose of suitable products will not change: delicious, nutritious, healthy, and modern. KEY POINTS: • Cultivation mushroom production value ranks within the top five after grain, vegetable, fruit, and edible oil plantation, greater than sugar, cotton, and tobacco business. • Mushroom cultivations have a high impact on China's poverty alleviation program, with earnings at least ten times higher than rice and corn. • The development of transportation and industrialization of mushrooms facilitate the modernization of mushroom industry in China.

Chemical profiles and health-promoting effects of porcini mushroom (Boletus edulis): A narrative review

Boletus edulis is an edible mushroom with nutritious, delicacy, and pharmacological properties. It is rich in carbohydrates, proteins, minerals, and taste compounds, while low in fat and calories. Diverse bioactive compounds, including polysaccharides, phenolic compounds, and phytosterols, have been found in B. edulis. In addition, bioactive compounds and chemical extracts from B. edulis have been verified to possess constipation prevention, antioxidant, antineoplastic, anti-inflammatory, hepato-protective, antibacterial, and antiviral activities. This paper provides an overview of B. edulis research in recent two decades, emphasizing the nutrition constituents, taste and flavor components, bioactive compounds, and health-promoting effects of B. edulis. Boletus edulis appeared to have health-promoting effects that may effectively prevent or treat various chronic diseases. The potential of B. edulis as a functional food and medicine needs to be further investigated and confirmed.