Household Pharmaceutical Waste Disposal as a Global Problem-A Review

Polystyrene nanoplastics synergistically exacerbate diclofenac toxicity in embryonic development and the health of adult zebrafish

In this study, we investigated the possible ecotoxicological effect of co-exposure to polystyrene nanoplastics (PS-NPs) and diclofenac (DCF) in zebrafish (Danio rerio). After six days of exposure, we noticed that the co-exposure to PS-NP (100 μg/L) and DCF (at 50 and 500 μg/L) decreased the hatching rate and increased the mortality rate compared to the control group. Furthermore, we noted that larvae exposed to combined pollutants showed a higher frequency of morphological abnormalities and increased oxidative stress, apoptosis, and lipid peroxidation. In adults, superoxide dismutase and catalase activities were also impaired in the intestine, and the co-exposure groups showed more histopathological alterations. Furthermore, the TNF-α, COX-2, and IL-1β expressions were significantly upregulated in the adult zebrafish co-exposed to pollutants. Based on these findings, the co-exposure to PS-NPs and DCF has shown an adverse effect on the intestinal region, supporting the notion that PS-NPs synergistically exacerbate DCF toxicity in zebrafish.

Molecular Simulation Studies of Pharmaceutical Pollutant Removal (Rosuvastatin and Simvastatin) Using Novel Modified-MOF Nanostructures (UIO-66, UIO-66/Chitosan, and UIO-66/Oxidized Chitosan)

The ubiquitous presence of pharmaceutical pollutants in the environment significantly threatens human health and aquatic ecosystems. Conventional wastewater treatment processes often fall short of effectively removing these emerging contaminants. Therefore, the development of high-performance adsorbents is crucial for environmental remediation. This research utilizes molecular simulation to explore the potential of novel modified metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) in pharmaceutical pollutant removal, paving the way for the design of efficient wastewater treatment strategies. Utilizing UIO-66, a robust MOF, as the base material, we developed UIO-66 functionalized with chitosan (CHI) and oxidized chitosan (OCHI). These modified MOFs' physical and chemical properties were first investigated through various characterization techniques. Subsequently, molecular dynamics simulation (MDS) and Monte Carlo simulation (MCS) were employed to elucidate the adsorption mechanisms of rosuvastatin (ROSU) and simvastatin (SIMV), two prevalent pharmaceutical pollutants, onto these nanostructures. MCS calculations demonstrated a significant enhancement in the adsorption energy by incorporating CHI and OCHI into UIO-66. This increased ROSU from -14,522 to -16,459 kcal/mol and SIMV from -17,652 to -21,207 kcal/mol. Moreover, MDS reveals ROSU rejection rates in neat UIO-66 to be at 40%, rising to 60 and 70% with CHI and OCHI. Accumulation rates increase from 4 Å in UIO-66 to 6 and 9 Å in UIO-CHI and UIO-OCHI. Concentration analysis shows SIMV rejection surges from 50 to 90%, with accumulation rates increasing from 6 to 11 Å with CHI and OCHI in UIO-66. Functionalizing UIO-66 with CHI and OCHI significantly enhanced the adsorption capacity and selectivity for ROSU and SIMV. Abundant hydroxyl and amino groups facilitated strong interactions, improving performance over that of unmodified UIO-66. Surface functionalization plays a vital role in customizing the MOFs for pharmaceutical pollutant removal. These insights guide next-gen adsorbent development, offering high efficiency and selectivity for wastewater treatment.

Ecopharmacology: Knowledge, Attitude, and Medication Disposal Practice Among Pharmacy Students

Background

Ecopharmacology, as a form of drug management for the environment, focuses on the impact of drugs on the environment. Pharmacists, and by extension pharmacy students, are expected to play an important role in ecopharmacology. Therefore, this study was conducted to determine the knowledge and attitude towards ecopharmacology and the practice of disposal of leftover or expired medicines among pharmacy students.

Methods

This was a descriptive cross-sectional study among pharmacy students in Northwestern Ethiopia. The study took place from May 1 to June 15, 2023. A self-administered questionnaire was used for data collection.

Results

Four hundred and forty-five students were included in the study. Only 91 (20%) of the students were aware of the term ecopharmacology, 27% knew that excretion from the human or animal body is the major route by which pharmaceutical agents enter the environment, and 42% were aware of the risk of increased antimicrobial resistance due to antibiotic residues in the environment. In addition, only 27% of respondents reported receiving information about the disposal of pharmaceuticals. The most common method of disposing of medications was throwing them away in household trash (61.8%).

Conclusion

Our results suggest that while most pharmacy students in Ethiopia have a positive attitude toward ecopharmacology, they do not know enough about ecopharmacology and dispose of their medicines poorly. More uniform education in ecopharmacology and pharmaceutical pollution might be warranted in the pharmacy curriculum.

Modeling Predictors of Medication Waste Reduction Intention in Algeria: Extending the Theory of Planned Behavior

COVID-19 caused an increase in the demand for medications, which led to an increase in pharmaceutical waste and there is no doubt that this contributes to environmental pollution. Hence, it became necessary to search for how to protect and improve the environment by encouraging the behavior of medication waste reduction. Accordingly, this study aims to investigate the factors affecting intentions to reduce medication waste. Considering this, we develop an extended theory of planned behavior (TPB) framework by incorporating the constructs of moral obligation, environmental awareness, and medication waste risk perception. Using the convenience sampling method and based on a self-administered questionnaire, a total of 225 usable responses were collected in five Algerian cities. The results showed that positive attitudes (β = 0.316, p < 0.001), moral obligation (β = 0.291, p < 0.001), environmental awareness (β = 0.227, p < 0.001), perceived behavior control (PBC) (β = 0.151, p = 0.001), greater perceived risks (β = 0.127, p < 0.001), and subjective norm (β = 0.096, p < 0.05) significantly and positively influence the medication waste minimization intention. Furthermore, our analyses revealed that the extended TPB model explained 73.40% of the intention variance. In conclusion, we have explored the intentions, and there may be a gap between intent and actual behavior. Therefore, we recommend future studies to examine the factors affecting the actual behavior of medication waste reduction and to investigate environmental ethics and religious commitment as predictors of waste reduction intentions.

Ketoprofen as an emerging contaminant: occurrence, ecotoxicity and (bio)removal

Ketoprofen, a bicyclic non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug commonly used in human and veterinary medicine, has recently been cited as an environmental contaminant that raises concerns for ecological well-being. It poses a growing threat due to its racemic mixture, enantiomers, and transformation products, which have ecotoxicological effects on various organisms, including invertebrates, vertebrates, plants, and microorganisms. Furthermore, ketoprofen is bioaccumulated and biomagnified throughout the food chain, threatening the ecosystem function. Surprisingly, despite these concerns, ketoprofen is not currently considered a priority substance. While targeted eco-pharmacovigilance for ketoprofen has been proposed, data on ketoprofen as a pharmaceutical contaminant are limited and incomplete. This review aims to provide a comprehensive summary of the most recent findings (from 2017 to March 2023) regarding the global distribution of ketoprofen in the environment, its ecotoxicity towards aquatic animals and plants, and available removal methods. Special emphasis is placed on understanding how ketoprofen affects microorganisms that play a pivotal role in Earth's ecosystems. The review broadly covers various approaches to ketoprofen biodegradation, including whole-cell fungal and bacterial systems as well as enzyme biocatalysts. Additionally, it explores the potential of adsorption by algae and phytoremediation for removing ketoprofen. This review will be of interest to a wide range of readers, including ecologists, microbiologists, policymakers, and those concerned about pharmaceutical pollution.

The impact of pharmaceutical pollutants on daphnids - A metabolomic approach

Pharmaceuticals have been classified as emerging contaminants in the aquatic ecosystem, mainly due to their increased use and improper disposal. A significant range of pharmaceutical compounds and their metabolites have been globally detected in surface waters and pose detrimental effects to non-target organisms. Monitoring pharmaceutical water pollution relies on the analytical approaches for their detection, however, such approaches are limited by their sensitivity limit and coverage of the wide range pharmaceutical compounds. This lack of realism in risk assessment is bypassed with effect-based methods, which are complemented by chemical screening and impact modelling, and are able to provide mechanistic insight for pollution. Focusing on the freshwater ecosystem, in this study we evaluated the acute effects on daphnids for three distinct groups of pharmaceuticals; antibiotics, estrogens, and a range of commonly encountered environmentally relevant pharmaceutical pollutants. Combining several endpoints such as mortality, biochemical (enzyme activities) and holistic (metabolomics) we discovered distinct patterns in biological responses. In this study, changes in enzymes of metabolism e.g. phosphatases and lipase, as well as the detoxification enzyme, glutathione-S-transferase, were recorded following acute exposure to the selected pharmaceuticals. A targeted analysis of the hydrophilic profile of daphnids revealed mainly the up-regulation of metabolites following metformin, gabapentin, amoxicillin, trimethoprim and β-estradiol. Whereas gemfibrozil, sulfamethoxazole and oestrone exposure resulted in the down-regulation of majority of metabolites.

Molecular Responses of Daphnids to Chronic Exposures to Pharmaceuticals

Pharmaceutical compounds are among several classes of contaminants of emerging concern, such as pesticides, heavy metals and personal care products, all of which are a major concern for aquatic ecosystems. The hazards posed by the presence of pharmaceutical is one which affects both freshwater organisms and human health-via non-target effects and by the contamination of drinking water sources. The molecular and phenotypic alterations of five pharmaceuticals which are commonly present in the aquatic environment were explored in daphnids under chronic exposures. Markers of physiology such as enzyme activities were combined with metabolic perturbations to assess the impact of metformin, diclofenac, gabapentin, carbamazepine and gemfibrozil on daphnids. Enzyme activity of markers of physiology included phosphatases, lipase, peptidase, β-galactosidase, lactate dehydrogenase, glutathione-S-transferase and glutathione reductase activities. Furthermore, targeted LC-MS/MS analysis focusing on glycolysis, the pentose phosphate pathway and the TCA cycle intermediates was performed to assess metabolic alterations. Exposure to pharmaceuticals resulted in the changes in activity for several enzymes of metabolism and the detoxification enzyme glutathione-S-transferase. Metabolic perturbations on key pathways revealed distinct groups and metabolic fingerprints for the different exposures and their mixtures. Chronic exposure to pharmaceuticals at low concentrations revealed significant alterations of metabolic and physiological endpoints.