1
|
Ilhami FB, Birhan YS, Cheng CC. Hydrogen-Bonding Interactions from Nucleobase-Decorated Supramolecular Polymer: Synthesis, Self-Assembly and Biomedical Applications. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2024; 10:234-254. [PMID: 38103183 DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.3c01097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2023]
Abstract
The fabrication of supramolecular materials for biomedical applications such as drug delivery, bioimaging, wound-dressing, adhesion materials, photodynamic/photothermal therapy, infection control (as antibacterial), etc. has grown tremendously, due to their unique properties, especially the formation of hydrogen bonding. Nevertheless, void space in the integration process, lack of feasibility in the construction of supramolecular materials of natural origin in living biological systems, potential toxicity, the need for complex synthesis protocols, and costly production process limits the actual application of nanomaterials for advanced biomedical applications. On the other hand, hydrogen bonding from nucleobases is one of the strategies that shed light on the blurred deployment of nanomaterials in medical applications, given the increasing reports of supramolecular polymers that promote advanced technologies. Herein, we review the extensive body of literature about supramolecular functional biomaterials based on nucleobase hydrogen bonding pertinent to different biomedical applications. It focuses on the fundamental understanding about the synthesis, nucleobase-decorated supramolecular architecture, and novel properties with special emphasis on the recent developments in the assembly of nanostructures via hydrogen-bonding interactions of nucleobase. Moreover, the challenges, plausible solutions, and prospects of the so-called hydrogen bonding interaction from nucleobase for the fabrication of functional biomaterials are outlined.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fasih Bintang Ilhami
- Department of Natural Science, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Science, Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Surabaya 60231, Indonesia
| | - Yihenew Simegniew Birhan
- Department of Chemistry, College of Natural and Computational Sciences, Debre Markos University, P.O. Box 269, Debre Markos 00000, Ethiopia
| | - Chih-Chia Cheng
- Graduate Institute of Applied Science and Technology, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taipei 10607, Taiwan
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Bhattacharya S, Prajapati BG, Singh S, Anjum MM. Nanoparticles drug delivery for 5-aminolevulinic acid (5-ALA) in photodynamic therapy (PDT) for multiple cancer treatment: a critical review on biosynthesis, detection, and therapeutic applications. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 2023; 149:17607-17634. [PMID: 37776358 DOI: 10.1007/s00432-023-05429-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2023] [Accepted: 09/13/2023] [Indexed: 10/02/2023]
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a promising cancer treatment that kills cancer cells selectively by stimulating reactive oxygen species generation with photosensitizers exposed to specific light wavelengths. 5-aminolevulinic acid (5-ALA) is a widely used photosensitizer. However, its limited tumour penetration and targeting reduce its therapeutic efficacy. Scholars have investigated nano-delivery techniques to improve 5-ALA administration and efficacy in PDT. This review summarises recent advances in biological host biosynthetic pathways and regulatory mechanisms for 5-ALA production. The review also highlights the potential therapeutic efficacy of various 5-ALA nano-delivery modalities, such as nanoparticles, liposomes, and gels, in treating various cancers. Although promising, 5-ALA nano-delivery methods face challenges that could impair targeting and efficacy. To determine their safety and biocompatibility, extensive preclinical and clinical studies are required. This study highlights the potential of 5-ALA-NDSs to improve PDT for cancer treatment, as well as the need for additional research to overcome barriers and improve medical outcomes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sankha Bhattacharya
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy & Technology Management, SVKM'S NMIMS Deemed-to-be University, Shirpur, Maharashtra, 425405, India.
| | - Bhuphendra G Prajapati
- Shree S. K. Patel College of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Ganpat University, Gujarat, Kherva, 384012, India.
| | - Sudarshan Singh
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200, Thailand
| | - Md Meraj Anjum
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, 226025, India
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Gautam S, Marwaha D, Singh N, Rai N, Sharma M, Tiwari P, Urandur S, Shukla RP, Banala VT, Mishra PR. Self-Assembled Redox-Sensitive Polymeric Nanostructures Facilitate the Intracellular Delivery of Paclitaxel for Improved Breast Cancer Therapy. Mol Pharm 2023; 20:1914-1932. [PMID: 36848489 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.2c00673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/01/2023]
Abstract
A two-tier approach has been proposed for targeted and synergistic combination therapy against metastatic breast cancer. First, it comprises the development of a paclitaxel (PX)-loaded redox-sensitive self-assembled micellar system using betulinic acid-disulfide-d-α-tocopheryl poly(ethylene glycol) succinate (BA-Cys-T) through carbonyl diimidazole (CDI) coupling chemistry. Second, hyaluronic acid is anchored to TPGS (HA-Cys-T) chemically through a cystamine spacer to achieve CD44 receptor-mediated targeting. We have established that there is significant synergy between PX and BA with a combination index of 0.27 at a molar ratio of 1:5. An integrated system comprising both BA-Cys-T and HA-Cys-T (PX/BA-Cys-T-HA) exhibited significantly higher uptake than PX/BA-Cys-T, indicating preferential CD44-mediated uptake along with the rapid release of drugs in response to higher glutathione concentrations. Significantly higher apoptosis (42.89%) was observed with PX/BA-Cys-T-HA than those with BA-Cys-T (12.78%) and PX/BA-Cys-T (33.38%). In addition, PX/BA-Cys-T-HA showed remarkable enhancement in the cell cycle arrest, improved depolarization of the mitochondrial membrane potential, and induced excessive generation of ROS when tested in the MDA-MB-231 cell line. An in vivo administration of targeted micelles showed improved pharmacokinetic parameters and significant tumor growth inhibition in 4T1-induced tumor-bearing BALB/c mice. Overall, the study indicates a potential role of PX/BA-Cys-T-HA in achieving both temporal and spatial targeting against metastatic breast cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shalini Gautam
- Division of Pharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Preclinical South PCS 002/011, B.S. 10/1, Sector-10, Jankipuram Extension, Sitapur Road, Lucknow 226031, UP, India.,Academy of Scientific and Innovation Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, UP, India
| | - Disha Marwaha
- Division of Pharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Preclinical South PCS 002/011, B.S. 10/1, Sector-10, Jankipuram Extension, Sitapur Road, Lucknow 226031, UP, India
| | - Neha Singh
- Division of Pharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Preclinical South PCS 002/011, B.S. 10/1, Sector-10, Jankipuram Extension, Sitapur Road, Lucknow 226031, UP, India
| | - Nikhil Rai
- Division of Pharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Preclinical South PCS 002/011, B.S. 10/1, Sector-10, Jankipuram Extension, Sitapur Road, Lucknow 226031, UP, India
| | - Madhu Sharma
- Division of Pharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Preclinical South PCS 002/011, B.S. 10/1, Sector-10, Jankipuram Extension, Sitapur Road, Lucknow 226031, UP, India
| | - Pratiksha Tiwari
- Division of Pharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Preclinical South PCS 002/011, B.S. 10/1, Sector-10, Jankipuram Extension, Sitapur Road, Lucknow 226031, UP, India
| | - Sandeep Urandur
- Division of Pharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Preclinical South PCS 002/011, B.S. 10/1, Sector-10, Jankipuram Extension, Sitapur Road, Lucknow 226031, UP, India
| | - Ravi Prakash Shukla
- Division of Pharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Preclinical South PCS 002/011, B.S. 10/1, Sector-10, Jankipuram Extension, Sitapur Road, Lucknow 226031, UP, India
| | - Venkatesh Teja Banala
- Division of Pharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Preclinical South PCS 002/011, B.S. 10/1, Sector-10, Jankipuram Extension, Sitapur Road, Lucknow 226031, UP, India
| | - Prabhat Ranjan Mishra
- Division of Pharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Preclinical South PCS 002/011, B.S. 10/1, Sector-10, Jankipuram Extension, Sitapur Road, Lucknow 226031, UP, India.,Academy of Scientific and Innovation Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, UP, India
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Guzmán Rodríguez A, Sablón Carrazana M, Rodríguez Tanty C, Malessy MJA, Fuentes G, Cruz LJ. Smart Polymeric Micelles for Anticancer Hydrophobic Drugs. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 15. [PMID: 36612002 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15010004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2022] [Revised: 12/15/2022] [Accepted: 12/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancer has become one of the deadliest diseases in our society. Surgery accompanied by subsequent chemotherapy is the treatment most used to prolong or save the patient's life. Still, it carries secondary risks such as infections and thrombosis and causes cytotoxic effects in healthy tissues. Using nanocarriers such as smart polymer micelles is a promising alternative to avoid or minimize these problems. These nanostructured systems will be able to encapsulate hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs through modified copolymers with various functional groups such as carboxyls, amines, hydroxyls, etc. The release of the drug occurs due to the structural degradation of these copolymers when they are subjected to endogenous (pH, redox reactions, and enzymatic activity) and exogenous (temperature, ultrasound, light, magnetic and electric field) stimuli. We did a systematic review of the efficacy of smart polymeric micelles as nanocarriers for anticancer drugs (doxorubicin, paclitaxel, docetaxel, lapatinib, cisplatin, adriamycin, and curcumin). For this reason, we evaluate the influence of the synthesis methods and the physicochemical properties of these systems that subsequently allow an effective encapsulation and release of the drug. On the other hand, we demonstrate how computational chemistry will enable us to guide and optimize the design of these micelles to carry out better experimental work.
Collapse
|
5
|
Li Y, Su Y, Li Z, Chen Y. Supramolecular Combination Cancer Therapy Based on Macrocyclic Supramolecular Materials. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14224855. [PMID: 36432982 PMCID: PMC9696801 DOI: 10.3390/polym14224855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2022] [Revised: 11/01/2022] [Accepted: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Supramolecular combination therapy adopts supramolecular materials to design intelligent drug delivery systems with different strategies for cancer treatments. Thereinto, macrocyclic supramolecular materials play a crucial role in encapsulating anticancer drugs to improve anticancer efficiency and decrease toxicity towards normal tissue by host-guest interaction. In general, chemotherapy is still common therapy for solid tumors in clinics. However, supramolecular combination therapy can overcome the limitations of the traditional single-drug chemotherapy in the laboratory findings. In this review, we summarized the combination chemotherapy, photothermal chemotherapy, and gene chemotherapy based on macrocyclic supramolecular materials. Finally, the application prospects in supramolecular combination therapy are discussed.
Collapse
|
6
|
Zhang C, Zhao X, Li D, Ji F, Dong A, Chen X, Zhang J, Wang X, Zhao Y, Chen X. Advances in 5-aminoketovaleric acid(5-ALA) nanoparticle delivery system based on cancer photodynamic therapy. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jddst.2022.103933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
|
7
|
Mendonça IP, de Paiva IHR, Duarte-Silva EP, de Melo MG, da Silva RS, do Nascimento MIX, Peixoto CA. Metformin improves depressive-like behavior in experimental Parkinson's disease by inducing autophagy in the substantia nigra and hippocampus. Inflammopharmacology 2022; 30:1705-1716. [PMID: 35931897 DOI: 10.1007/s10787-022-01043-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2022] [Accepted: 07/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) remains a disease of little known etiology. In addition to the motor symptoms, depression is present in about 40% of patients, contributing to the loss of quality of life. Recently, the involvement of the autophagy mechanism in the pathogenesis of depression has been studied, in addition to its involvement in PD as well. In this study, we tested the effects of metformin, an antidiabetic drug also with antidepressant effects, on depressive-like behavior in a rotenone-induced PD model and on the autophagy process. Mice 8-week-old male C57BL/6 were induced with rotenone for 20 consecutive days (2.5 mg/kg/day) and treated with metformin (200 mg/kg/day) from the 5th day of induction. All the animals were submitted to rotarod, sucrose preference and tail suspension tests. After euthanasia, the substantia nigra and hippocampus were removed for analysis by western blotting or fixed and analyzed by immunofluorescence. The results show that there was an impairment of autophagy in animals induced by rotenone both in nigral and extranigral regions as well as a depressive-like behavior. Metformin was able to inhibit depressive-like behavior and increase signaling pathway proteins, transcription factors and autophagosome-forming proteins, thus inducing autophagy in both the hippocampus and the substantia nigra. In conclusion, we show that metformin has an antidepressant effect in a rotenone-induced PD model, which may result, at least in part, from the induction of the autophagy process.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ingrid Prata Mendonça
- Laboratory of Ultrastructure, Aggeu Magalhães Institute (IAM), Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ), Recife, PE, Brazil. .,Postgraduate Program in Biological Sciences (PPGCB), Federal University of Pernambuco (UFPE), Recife, Brazil.
| | - Igor Henrique Rodrigues de Paiva
- Laboratory of Ultrastructure, Aggeu Magalhães Institute (IAM), Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ), Recife, PE, Brazil.,Postgraduate Program in Biological Sciences (PPGCB), Federal University of Pernambuco (UFPE), Recife, Brazil
| | - Eduardo Pereira Duarte-Silva
- Laboratory of Ultrastructure, Aggeu Magalhães Institute (IAM), Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ), Recife, PE, Brazil.,Postgraduate Program in Biosciences and Biotechnology for Health (PPGBBS), Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ-PE)/Aggeu Magalhães Institute (IAM), Recife, PE, Brazil
| | - Michel Gomes de Melo
- Laboratory of Ultrastructure, Aggeu Magalhães Institute (IAM), Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ), Recife, PE, Brazil.,Postgraduate Program in Biological Sciences (PPGCB), Federal University of Pernambuco (UFPE), Recife, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo S da Silva
- Laboratory of Ultrastructure, Aggeu Magalhães Institute (IAM), Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ), Recife, PE, Brazil.,Postgraduate Program in Biological Sciences (PPGCB), Federal University of Pernambuco (UFPE), Recife, Brazil
| | | | - Christina Alves Peixoto
- Laboratory of Ultrastructure, Aggeu Magalhães Institute (IAM), Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ), Recife, PE, Brazil. .,National Institute of Science and Technology On Neuroimmunomodulation (INCT-NIM), Oswaldo Cruz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Ghiarasim R, Tiron CE, Tiron A, Dimofte MG, Pinteala M, Rotaru A. Solid-Phase Synthesized Copolymers for the Assembly of pH-Sensitive Micelles Suitable for Drug Delivery Applications. Nanomaterials (Basel) 2022; 12:1798. [PMID: 35683654 DOI: 10.3390/nano12111798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2022] [Revised: 05/11/2022] [Accepted: 05/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
Diblock copolymers of polyhistidine are known for their self-assembly into micelles and their pH-dependent disassembly due to the amphiphilic character of the copolymer and the unsaturated imidazole groups that undergo a hydrophobic-to-hydrophilic transition in an acidic pH. This property has been largely utilized for the design of drug delivery systems that target a tumor environment possessing a slightly lower extracellular pH (6.8–7.2). The main purpose of this study was to investigate the possibility of designed poly(ethylene glycol)-polyhistidine sequences synthesized using solid-phase peptide synthesis (SPPS), to self-assemble into micelles, to assess the ability of the corresponding micelles to be loaded with doxorubicin (DOX), and to investigate the drug release profile at pH values similar to a malignant extracellular environment. The designed and assembled free and DOX-loaded micelles were characterized from a physico-chemical point of view, their cytotoxicity was evaluated on a human breast cancer cell line (MDA-MB-231), while the cellular areas where micelles disassembled and released DOX were assessed using immunofluorescence. We concluded that the utilization of SPPS for the synthesis of the polyhistidine diblock copolymers yielded sequences that behaved similarly to the copolymeric sequences synthesized using ring-opening polymerization, while the advantages of SPPS may offer facile tuning of the histidine site or the attachment of a large variety of functional molecules.
Collapse
|
9
|
Chen S, Wu Y, Lortie F, Bernard J, Binder WH, Zhu J. Hydrogen-Bonds Mediated Nanomedicine: Design, Synthesis and Applications. Macromol Rapid Commun 2022; 43:e2200168. [PMID: 35609317 DOI: 10.1002/marc.202200168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2022] [Revised: 04/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Among the various challenges in medicine, diagnosis, complete cure and healing of cancers remain difficult given the heterogeneity and complexity of such disease. Differing from conventional platforms with often unsatisfactory theranostic capabilities, the contribution of supramolecular interactions, such as hydrogen-bonds (H-bonds), to cancer nanotheranostics opens new perspectives for the design of biomedical materials, exhibiting remarkable properties and easier processability. Thanks to their dynamic characteristics, a feature generally observed for non-covalent interactions, H-bonding (macro)molecules can be used as supramolecular motifs for yielding drug- and diagnostic carriers that possess attractive features, arising from the combination of assembled nanoplatforms and the responsiveness of H-bonds. Thus H-bonded nanomedicine provides a rich toolbox that is useful to fulfill biomedical needs with unique advantages in early-stage diagnosis and therapy, demonstrating the promising potential in clinical translations and applications. We here summarize the design and synthetic routes towards H-bonded nanomedicines, focus on the growing understanding of the structure-function relationship for efficient cancer treatment. We propose a guidance for designing new H-bonded intelligent theranostic agents, to inspire more successful explorations of cancer nanotheranostics and finally to promote potential clinical translations. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Senbin Chen
- Hubei Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials and Medical Protective Materials, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Wuhan, 430074, China
| | - Yanggui Wu
- Hubei Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials and Medical Protective Materials, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Wuhan, 430074, China
| | - Frédéric Lortie
- Univ Lyon, CNRS, UMR 5223, Ingénierie des Matériaux Polymères, Université Claude Bernard Lyon1, INSA Lyon, Université Jean Monnet, Villeurbanne Cedex, F-69621, France
| | - Julien Bernard
- Univ Lyon, CNRS, UMR 5223, Ingénierie des Matériaux Polymères, Université Claude Bernard Lyon1, INSA Lyon, Université Jean Monnet, Villeurbanne Cedex, F-69621, France
| | - Wolfgang H Binder
- Chair of Macromolecular Chemistry, Faculty of Natural Science II (Chemistry, Physics and Mathematics), Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, von-Danckelmann-Platz 4, Halle (Saale), D-06120, Germany
| | - Jintao Zhu
- Hubei Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials and Medical Protective Materials, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Wuhan, 430074, China
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Rinaldi A, Caraffi R, Grazioli MV, Oddone N, Giardino L, Tosi G, Vandelli MA, Calzà L, Ruozi B, Duskey JT. Applications of the ROS-Responsive Thioketal Linker for the Production of Smart Nanomedicines. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:687. [PMID: 35215600 PMCID: PMC8874672 DOI: 10.3390/polym14040687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2022] [Revised: 02/06/2022] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Reactive oxygen species (ROS)-sensitive drug delivery systems (DDS) specifically responding to altered levels of ROS in the pathological microenvironment have emerged as an effective means to enhance the pharmaceutical efficacy of conventional nanomedicines, while simultaneously reducing side effects. In particular, the use of the biocompatible, biodegradable, and non-toxic ROS-responsive thioketal (TK) functional group in the design of smart DDS has grown exponentially in recent years. In the design of TK-based DDS, different technological uses of TK have been proposed to overcome the major limitations of conventional DDS counterparts including uncontrolled drug release and off-target effects. This review will focus on the different technological uses of TK-based biomaterials in smart nanomedicines by using it as a linker to connect a drug on the surface of nanoparticles, form prodrugs, as a core component of the DDS to directly control its structure, to control the opening of drug-releasing gates or to change the conformation of the nano-systems. A comprehensive view of the various uses of TK may allow researchers to exploit this reactive linker more consciously while designing nanomedicines to be more effective with improved disease-targeting ability, providing novel therapeutic opportunities in the treatment of many diseases.
Collapse
|