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Cano A, Eraso P, Mazón MJ, Portillo F. LOXL2 in Cancer: A Two-Decade Perspective. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:14405. [PMID: 37762708 PMCID: PMC10532419 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241814405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2023] [Revised: 09/19/2023] [Accepted: 09/20/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Lysyl Oxidase Like 2 (LOXL2) belongs to the lysyl oxidase (LOX) family, which comprises five lysine tyrosylquinone (LTQ)-dependent copper amine oxidases in humans. In 2003, LOXL2 was first identified as a promoter of tumour progression and, over the course of two decades, numerous studies have firmly established its involvement in multiple cancers. Extensive research with large cohorts of human tumour samples has demonstrated that dysregulated LOXL2 expression is strongly associated with poor prognosis in patients. Moreover, investigations have revealed the association of LOXL2 with various targets affecting diverse aspects of tumour progression. Additionally, the discovery of a complex network of signalling factors acting at the transcriptional, post-transcriptional, and post-translational levels has provided insights into the mechanisms underlying the aberrant expression of LOXL2 in tumours. Furthermore, the development of genetically modified mouse models with silenced or overexpressed LOXL2 has enabled in-depth exploration of its in vivo role in various cancer models. Given the significant role of LOXL2 in numerous cancers, extensive efforts are underway to identify specific inhibitors that could potentially improve patient prognosis. In this review, we aim to provide a comprehensive overview of two decades of research on the role of LOXL2 in cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amparo Cano
- Departamento de Bioquímica UAM, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas Alberto Sols, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas-Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (CSIC-UAM), 28029 Madrid, Spain; (A.C.); (P.E.); (M.J.M.)
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Universitario La Paz—IdiPAZ, 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red, Área de Cáncer (CIBERONC), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Pilar Eraso
- Departamento de Bioquímica UAM, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas Alberto Sols, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas-Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (CSIC-UAM), 28029 Madrid, Spain; (A.C.); (P.E.); (M.J.M.)
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Universitario La Paz—IdiPAZ, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - María J. Mazón
- Departamento de Bioquímica UAM, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas Alberto Sols, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas-Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (CSIC-UAM), 28029 Madrid, Spain; (A.C.); (P.E.); (M.J.M.)
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Universitario La Paz—IdiPAZ, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Francisco Portillo
- Departamento de Bioquímica UAM, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas Alberto Sols, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas-Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (CSIC-UAM), 28029 Madrid, Spain; (A.C.); (P.E.); (M.J.M.)
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Universitario La Paz—IdiPAZ, 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red, Área de Cáncer (CIBERONC), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
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Löser R, Kuchar M, Wodtke R, Neuber C, Belter B, Kopka K, Santhanam L, Pietzsch J. Lysyl Oxidases as Targets for Cancer Therapy and Diagnostic Imaging. ChemMedChem 2023; 18:e202300331. [PMID: 37565736 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.202300331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2023] [Revised: 08/10/2023] [Accepted: 08/11/2023] [Indexed: 08/12/2023]
Abstract
The understanding of the contribution of the tumour microenvironment to cancer progression and metastasis, in particular the interplay between tumour cells, fibroblasts and the extracellular matrix has grown tremendously over the last years. Lysyl oxidases are increasingly recognised as key players in this context, in addition to their function as drivers of fibrotic diseases. These insights have considerably stimulated drug discovery efforts towards lysyl oxidases as targets over the last decade. This review article summarises the biochemical and structural properties of theses enzymes. Their involvement in tumour progression and metastasis is highlighted from a biochemical point of view, taking into consideration both the extracellular and intracellular action of lysyl oxidases. More recently reported inhibitor compounds are discussed with an emphasis on their discovery, structure-activity relationships and the results of their biological characterisation. Molecular probes developed for imaging of lysyl oxidase activity are reviewed from the perspective of their detection principles, performance and biomedical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reik Löser
- Institute of Radiopharmaceutical Cancer Research Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden Rossendorf, Bautzner Landstraße 400, 01328, Dresden, Germany
- Faculty of Chemistry and Food Chemistry, School of Science, Technische Universität Dresden, Mommsenstraße 4, 01069, Dresden, Germany
| | - Manuela Kuchar
- Institute of Radiopharmaceutical Cancer Research Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden Rossendorf, Bautzner Landstraße 400, 01328, Dresden, Germany
| | - Robert Wodtke
- Institute of Radiopharmaceutical Cancer Research Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden Rossendorf, Bautzner Landstraße 400, 01328, Dresden, Germany
| | - Christin Neuber
- Institute of Radiopharmaceutical Cancer Research Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden Rossendorf, Bautzner Landstraße 400, 01328, Dresden, Germany
| | - Birgit Belter
- Institute of Radiopharmaceutical Cancer Research Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden Rossendorf, Bautzner Landstraße 400, 01328, Dresden, Germany
| | - Klaus Kopka
- Institute of Radiopharmaceutical Cancer Research Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden Rossendorf, Bautzner Landstraße 400, 01328, Dresden, Germany
- Faculty of Chemistry and Food Chemistry, School of Science, Technische Universität Dresden, Mommsenstraße 4, 01069, Dresden, Germany
| | - Lakshmi Santhanam
- Departments of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine and Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, 21287, USA
| | - Jens Pietzsch
- Institute of Radiopharmaceutical Cancer Research Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden Rossendorf, Bautzner Landstraße 400, 01328, Dresden, Germany
- Faculty of Chemistry and Food Chemistry, School of Science, Technische Universität Dresden, Mommsenstraße 4, 01069, Dresden, Germany
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Trackman PC. Multifunctional Lysyl Oxidases. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24076044. [PMID: 37047014 PMCID: PMC10094348 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24076044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2023] [Accepted: 03/21/2023] [Indexed: 04/14/2023] Open
Abstract
This Special Issue on lysyl oxidases, which are proteins derived from five related genes known as Lox, and Loxl1-Loxl4, brings together articles that reflect some of the diverse approaches and perspectives needed to better understand the biology of these multifunctional proteins [...].
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Meier A, Mian MR, Ou S, Lovell S, Mure M. Crystal structures of di-μ-chlorido-bis-({( E)-5-(ethyl-amino)-4-methyl-2-[(pyridin-2-yl)diazen-yl]phen-o-lato}copper(II)) and chlorido-bis-(1,10-phen-anthroline)copper(II) chloride tetra-hydrate. Acta Crystallogr E Crystallogr Commun 2023; 79:201-206. [PMID: 36909989 PMCID: PMC9993926 DOI: 10.1107/s205698902300138x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2022] [Accepted: 02/15/2023] [Indexed: 02/23/2023]
Abstract
The dark-red title complex crystallized from an equimolar methanol solution of (E)-5-(ethyl-amino)-4-methyl-2-[(pyridin-2-yl)diazen-yl]phenol and CuCl2(phen) (phen = 1,10-phenanthroline) as a centrosymmetric dimer, [CuCl(C14H15N4O)]2. The Cu atoms are bridged by two Cl ligands and have a slightly distorted square-pyramidal coordination, where two N atoms from the azo and the pyridine moieties, a phenolic O and a Cl atom comprise the base and the other Cl occupies the apex position. The apical Cu-Cl bond, 2.6192 (4) Å, is longer than the basal one, 2.2985 (3) Å, due to Jahn-Teller distortion. The dimers are associated via weak inter-molecular hydrogen bonds and π-π stacking inter-actions between phenyl and pyridine rings. A monomeric by-product of the same reaction, [CuCl(phen)2]Cl·4H2O, has a trigonal-bipyramidal coordination of Cu with equatorial Cl ligand, and extensive outer-sphere disorder. In the structure of 4, the packing of cations leaves continuous channels containing disordered Cl- anions and solvent mol-ecules. The identity of the solvent (water or a water/methanol mixture) was not certain. The disordered anion/solvent regions comprise 28% of the unit-cell volume. The disorder was approximated by five partly occupied positions of the Cl- anion and ten positions of O atoms with a total occupancy of 3, giving a total of 48 electrons per asymmetric unit, in agreement with the integral electron density of 47.8 electrons in the disordered region, as was estimated using the BYPASS-type solvent-masking program [van der Sluis & Spek (1990). Acta Cryst. A46, 194-201].
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex Meier
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA
| | - Mohammad Rasel Mian
- X-ray Crystallography Laboratory, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA
| | - Siyu Ou
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA
| | - Scott Lovell
- X-ray Crystallography Laboratory, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA.,Protein Structure Laboratory, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS66047, USA
| | - Minae Mure
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA
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Meier AA, Moon HJ, Sabuncu S, Singh P, Ronnebaum TA, Ou S, Douglas JT, Jackson TA, Moënne-Loccoz P, Mure M. Insight into the Spatial Arrangement of the Lysine Tyrosylquinone and Cu 2+ in the Active Site of Lysyl Oxidase-like 2. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232213966. [PMID: 36430446 PMCID: PMC9694262 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232213966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2022] [Revised: 10/31/2022] [Accepted: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase-2 (LOXL2) is a Cu2+ and lysine tyrosylquinone (LTQ)-dependent amine oxidase that catalyzes the oxidative deamination of peptidyl lysine and hydroxylysine residues to promote crosslinking of extracellular matrix proteins. LTQ is post-translationally derived from Lys653 and Tyr689, but its biogenesis mechanism remains still elusive. A 2.4 Å Zn2+-bound precursor structure lacking LTQ (PDB:5ZE3) has become available, where Lys653 and Tyr689 are 16.6 Å apart, thus a substantial conformational rearrangement is expected to take place for LTQ biogenesis. However, we have recently shown that the overall structures of the precursor (no LTQ) and the mature (LTQ-containing) LOXL2s are very similar and disulfide bonds are conserved. In this study, we aim to gain insights into the spatial arrangement of LTQ and the active site Cu2+ in the mature LOXL2 using a recombinant LOXL2 that is inhibited by 2-hydrazinopyridine (2HP). Comparative UV-vis and resonance Raman spectroscopic studies of the 2HP-inhibited LOXL2 and the corresponding model compounds and an EPR study of the latter support that 2HP-modified LTQ serves as a tridentate ligand to the active site Cu2. We propose that LTQ resides within 2.9 Å of the active site of Cu2+ in the mature LOXL2, and both LTQ and Cu2+ are solvent-exposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex A. Meier
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA
| | - Hee-Jung Moon
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA
| | - Sinan Sabuncu
- Department of Chemical Physiology and Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA
| | - Priya Singh
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA
| | - Trey A. Ronnebaum
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA
| | - Siyu Ou
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA
| | - Justin T. Douglas
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA
| | - Timothy A. Jackson
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA
| | - Pierre Moënne-Loccoz
- Department of Chemical Physiology and Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA
| | - Minae Mure
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA
- Correspondence:
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Meier AA, Kuczera K, Mure M. A 3D-Predicted Structure of the Amine Oxidase Domain of Lysyl Oxidase-Like 2. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:13385. [PMID: 36362176 PMCID: PMC9659206 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232113385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2022] [Revised: 10/27/2022] [Accepted: 10/29/2022] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase-like 2 (LOXL2) has been recognized as an attractive drug target for anti-fibrotic and anti-tumor therapies. However, the structure-based drug design of LOXL2 has been very challenging due to the lack of structural information of the catalytically-competent LOXL2. In this study; we generated a 3D-predicted structure of the C-terminal amine oxidase domain of LOXL2 containing the lysine tyrosylquinone (LTQ) cofactor from the 2.4Å crystal structure of the Zn2+-bound precursor (lacking LTQ; PDB:5ZE3); this was achieved by molecular modeling and molecular dynamics simulation based on our solution studies of a mature LOXL2 that is inhibited by 2-hydrazinopyridine. The overall structures of the 3D-modeled mature LOXL2 and the Zn2+-bound precursor are very similar (RMSD = 1.070Å), and disulfide bonds are conserved. The major difference of the mature and the precursor LOXL2 is the secondary structure of the pentapeptide (His652-Lys653-Ala654-Ser655-Phe656) containing Lys653 (the precursor residue of the LTQ cofactor). We anticipate that this peptide is flexible in solution to accommodate the conformation that enables the LTQ cofactor formation as opposed to the β-sheet observed in 5ZE3. We discuss the active site environment surrounding LTQ and Cu2+ of the 3D-predicted structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex A. Meier
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA
| | - Krzysztof Kuczera
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA
| | - Minae Mure
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA
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