Oncology and Cardiac Rehabilitation: An Underrated Relationship

Cardio-oncology rehabilitation: are we ready?

Cardio-oncology rehabilitation (CORE) is not only an essential component of cancer rehabilitation but also a pillar of preventive cardio-oncology. Cardio-oncology rehabilitation is a comprehensive model based on a multitargeted approach and its efficacy has been widely documented; when compared with an 'exercise only' programme, comprehensive CORE demonstrates a better outcome. It involves nutritional counselling, psychological support, and cardiovascular (CV) risk assessment, and it is directed to a very demanding population with a heavy burden of CV diseases driven by physical inactivity, cancer therapy-induced metabolic derangements, and cancer therapy-related CV toxicities. Despite its usefulness, CORE is still underused in cancer patients and we are still at the dawning of remote models of rehabilitation (tele-rehabilitation). Not all CORE is created equally: a careful screening procedure to identify patients who will benefit the most from CORE and a multidisciplinary customized approach are mandatory to achieve a better outcome for cancer survivors throughout their cancer journey. The aim of this paper is to provide an updated review of CORE not only for cardiologists dealing with this peculiar population of patients but also for oncologists, primary care providers, patients, and caregivers. This multidisciplinary team should help cancer patients to maintain a healthy and active life before, during, and after cancer treatment, in order to improve quality of life and to fight health inequities.

Home-based self-management multimodal cancer interventions & cardiotoxicity: a scoping review

BACKGROUND

Due to advancements in methods of cancer treatment, the population of people living with and beyond cancer is dramatically growing. The number of cancer survivors developing cardiovascular diseases and heart failure is also rising, due in part to the cardiotoxic nature of many cancer treatments. Guidelines are being increasingly released, emphasising the need for interdisciplinary action to address this gap in survivorship care. However, the extent to which interventions exist, incorporating the recommendations of cardio-oncology research, remains undetermined.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this scoping review is to assess the nature, extent and remit of existing cancer care interventions and their integration of cardio-oncology principles.

METHODS

The review was conducted in accordance with the PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews Guidelines. Databases were independently searched for articles from 2010 to 2022, by two members of the research team. Data were charted and synthesised using the following criteria: (a) the focus of the intervention (b) the medium of delivery (c) the duration (d) the modalities included in the interventions (e) the research articles associated with each intervention (f) the type of studies conducted (g) key measures used (h) outcomes reported.

RESULTS

Interventions encompassed six key modalities: Psychological Support, Physical Activity, Nutrition, Patient Education, Lifestyle and Caregiver Support. The focus, medium of delivery and duration of interventions varied significantly. While a considerable number of study protocols and pilot studies exist documenting HSMIs, only 25% appear to have progressed beyond this stage of development. Of those that have, the present review did not identify any 'feasible' interventions that covered each of the six modalities, while being generalisable to all cancer survivors and incorporating the recommendations from cardio-oncology research.

CONCLUSION

Despite the substantial volume of research and evidence from the field of cardio-oncology, the findings of this scoping review suggest that the recommendations from guidelines have yet to be successfully translated from theory to practice. There is an opportunity, if not necessity, for cardiac rehabilitation to expand to meet the needs of those living with and beyond cancer.

Causes of death in women with breast cancer: a risks and rates study on a population-based cohort

Introduction

The increasing survival of patients with breast cancer has prompted the assessment of mortality due to all causes of death in these patients. We estimated the absolute risks of death from different causes, useful for health-care planning and clinical prediction, as well as cause-specific hazards, useful for hypothesis generation on etiology and risk factors.

Materials and methods

Using data from population-based cancer registries we performed a retrospective study on a cohort of women diagnosed with primary breast cancer. We carried out a competing-cause analysis computing cumulative incidence functions (CIFs) and cause-specific hazards (CSHs) in the whole cohort, separately by age, stage and registry area.

Results

The study cohort comprised 12,742 women followed up for six years. Breast cancer showed the highest CIF, 13.71%, and cardiovascular disease was the second leading cause of death with a CIF of 3.60%. The contribution of breast cancer deaths to the CIF for all causes varied widely by age class: 89.25% in women diagnosed at age <50 years, 72.94% in women diagnosed at age 50-69 and 48.25% in women diagnosed at age ≥70. Greater CIF variations were observed according to stage: the contribution of causes other than breast cancer to CIF for all causes was 73.4% in women with stage I disease, 42.9% in stage II-III and only 13.2% in stage IV. CSH computation revealed temporal variations: in women diagnosed at age ≥70 the CSH for breast cancer was equaled by that for cardiovascular disease and "other diseases" in the sixth year following diagnosis, and an early peak for breast cancer was identified in the first year following diagnosis. Among women aged 50-69 we identified an early peak for breast cancer followed by a further peak near the second year of follow-up. Comparison by geographic area highlighted conspicuous variations: the highest CIF for cardiovascular disease was more than 70% higher than the lowest, while for breast cancer the highest CIF doubled the lowest.

Conclusion

The integrated interpretation of absolute risks and hazards suggests the need for multidisciplinary surveillance and prevention using community-based, holistic and well-coordinated survivorship care models.

Information needs of women with breast cancer participating in cardiovascular rehabilitation: A mixed-methods study

OBJECTIVE

To determine the information needs of women with a history of breast cancer attending a cardiovascular rehabilitation (CR) program.

METHODS

A mixed-methods approach was used, including a cross-sectional online survey using an adapted version of the Toronto Information Needs Questionnaire Breast Cancer (TINQ-BC) and 7 virtual focus group sessions (n = 20).

RESULTS

Overall, 50 responses were received. The TINQ-BC mean was 4.2 ± 0.5/5, with 34/42 items scoring higher than 4 (very important). The highest information needs were related to knowing if cancer is in their bodies or has come back, ways to prevent treatment side effects, and how the illness may affect their future. Participants identified their preferences for education delivery as discussion with peers/healthcare providers and lectures. The focus groups revealed six overarching themes: need for peer support, to make connections, and build relationships; comfort with and utility of technology; desire to learn about specific educational topics; preferences for education sessions; value of education; and value of exercise.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings provided insight into the information needs of women with a history of breast cancer who participate in CR.

PRACTICAL IMPLICATION

The care of these patients should be personalized based on these needs to support their adherence to the program.

Cancer Therapy-Related Cardiotoxicity: A Comprehensive Retrospective Analysis at Najran Cancer Center, Saudi Arabia

Background Cardiotoxicity, produced as an adverse effect of anticancer therapy, is a common issue during cancer treatment. Acute coronary syndrome, myocarditis, arrhythmias, or heart failure can all be symptoms of this issue. Little is known about its occurrence among Saudi Arabian cancer patients. This study aims to investigate factors linked to anticancer therapy-related cardiotoxicity. Methods A retrospective study was conducted from April 2020 to May 2022 at the King Khalid Hospital, Najran, Saudi Arabia. The study included adult cancer patients receiving anticancer therapy, regardless of their cardiovascular disease history. Univariate analysis was used to investigate factors associated with the occurrence of cardiotoxicity related to anticancer therapy. Results Of 78 patients receiving anticancer therapy, cardiotoxicity occurred in 12 (15.4%) patients. The mean age was 56.5 ± 13.4 years, with 33.3% aged over 65 years. Comorbidities included hypertension (44; 56.4%), diabetes (41; 52.6%), dyslipidemia (13; 16.7%), smoking (16; 20.5%), heart disease (6; 7.7%), trastuzumab use (9; 11.5%), and chronic kidney disease (2; 2.6%). The most common cancers were breast cancer and gastrointestinal cancer (27.6% each). Monoclonal anticancer agents 35 (46.1%) and alkylating agents 29 (38.2%) were commonly used chemotherapies. Cardiac protective agents were used in 16 (21.1%) of patients, with angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors 15 (19.7%) and statins (13; 17.1%) being the most prescribed. Baseline ejection fraction (EF) was normal in 69 (90.8%) of cases. The follow-up duration was 1.93 ± 1.90 years. A drop in EF occurred in five (6.6%) of cases. Dyslipidemia (OR: 0.12; 95% CI: 0.03-0.47, p=0.002), previous heart disease (OR: 0.14; 95% CI: 0.02-0.81, p=0.029), and impaired baseline EF (p=0.029) were associated with increased risk of cardiotoxicity. Statin (OR: 0.22; 95% CI: 0.05 to 0.84, p=0.028) and antiplatelet agents (OR: 0.19; 95% CI: 0.03 to 1.01, p=0.051) were protective agents against cardiac toxicity. Conclusion Effective anti-cancer therapy may be accompanied by an increased risk of cardiotoxicity. In this study, a history of prior heart disease, dyslipidemia, low baseline ejection fraction, and the administration of multiple anticancer therapy agents was associated with cardiotoxicity. Proactive management strategies aimed at mitigating the potential cardiotoxic effects of anti-cancer therapies are crucial.

Home-based cardio-oncology rehabilitation using a telerehabilitation platform in hematological cancer survivors: a feasibility study

Purpose

Cardiovascular disease is a competing mortality cause in hematological cancer survivors due to toxic oncological treatment, accumulation of risk factors, and decline of cardiorespiratory fitness. Cardio-oncology rehabilitation (CORE) is an emerging treatment model to optimize the prognosis of hematological cancer patients and survivors; however, its accessibility during the COVID-19 pandemic is poor. The study aimed to evaluate the feasibility, safety, and effect of a 12-week home-based CORE intervention in telerehabilitation approach among hematological cancer survivors.

Methods

A prospective single-arm interventional study was conducted at a faculty hospital in Brno, Czech Republic. This study provided 12 weeks of the home-based CORE using a telerehabilitation approach that allows remote supervision by a clinician from a medical facility. The telerehabilitation approach consists of three components: a heart rate sensor (PolarM430, Kempele, Finland), a web platform compatible with the sensor, and telesupervising via telephone call (1 call per week). To improve adherence, a physiotherapist called participants to assess or address adverse effects, exercise feedback, and participant-related concerns. The anthropometry, body composition, and cardiorespiratory fitness were measured immediately after the intervention.

Results

Eleven hematological cancer survivors with an average age of 60.3 ± 10 years participated in the study. Most participants were diagnosed with Follicular lymphoma and received maintenance treatment. Participants had a significant (p < 0.05) increase in cardiorespiratory fitness by 2.6 ml/kg/min; and in peak workload, from 143.3 ± 60.6 W to 158.6 ± 67.5 W (p < 0.05). Improvement in anthropometry and body composition was observed but yielded no statistical significance. Most (80%) participants completed the three times/per week telesupervising exercise session for 12 weeks.No adverse event was identified.

Conclusion

Findings from this study suggest that home-based CORE may provide hematological cancer survivors with an increase in CRF during the rehabilitation period after hospital discharge. The telerehabilitation CORE model is effective, feasible, safe, and has demonstrated good adherence. Further randomized controlled efficacy study with larger sample size is needed before clinical implementation.

Clinical trial registration

Clinical trial registration number NCT04822389 (30/03/2021).

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13102-023-00650-2.

Exercise Training in Elderly Cancer Patients: A Systematic Review

Due to the aging of the population, in 70% of cases, a new cancer diagnosis equals a cancer diagnosis in a geriatric patient. In this population, beyond the concept of mortality and morbidity, functional capacity, disability, and quality of life remain crucial. In fact, when the functional status is preserved, the pathogenetic curve towards disability will stop or even regress. The present systematic review investigated the effectiveness of physical exercise, as part of a holistic assessment of the patient, for preventing disability and improving the patient’s quality of life, and partially reducing all-cause mortality. This evidence must point towards decentralization of care by implementing the development of rehabilitation programs for elderly cancer patients either before or after anti-cancer therapy.

Adherence, safety, and satisfaction of a cardio-oncology rehabilitation program framework versus community exercise training for cancer survivors: findings from the CORE trial

PURPOSE

To assess safety, satisfaction, and overall adherence of a center-based cardiac rehabilitation (CBCR) program for cancer survivors at increased cardiovascular (CV) risk, compared to community-based exercise training (CBET).

METHODS

The CORE study was a single-center, prospective, randomized controlled trial enrolling cancer survivors exposed to cardiotoxic cancer treatment and/or with previous CV disease. Participants were randomized to an 8-week CBCR program or CBET, twice a week. Overall feasibility (consent, retention, and completion rates), intervention adherence (percentage of exercise sessions attended), and safety were assessed. Adverse events (AEs) were registered, and participants' satisfaction was measured at the end of the study.

RESULTS

Eighty out of 116 potentially eligible individuals were included; consent rate was 72.4%, and 77 (96.2%) started the study (retention rate 100% in CBCR vs 92.5% in CBET); completion rate was 92.5%. Intervention adherence was higher in CBCR (90.3 ± 11.8% vs 68.4 ± 22.1%, p < 0.001). Exercise-related AEs were mainly related to musculoskeletal conditions in both groups (7 in CBCR vs 20 in CBET, p < 0.001), accounting for exercise prescription modification in 47 sessions (18 (3.3%) in CBCR vs 29 (7.2%) in CBET, p = 0.006), none motivating exercise discontinuation. No participants reported major CV events. Overall, the satisfaction with the different aspects of the programs (e.g., expectations, monitoring) was higher in the CBCR.

CONCLUSION

This exploratory analysis of the CORE trial suggests that both exercise-based interventions are feasible and safe in this setting. The higher intervention adherence and patient satisfaction in CBCR suggest that this comprehensive approach could be of interest in this population.

Impact of a COmprehensive cardiac REhabilitation framework among high cardiovascular risk cancer survivors: Protocol for the CORE trial

BACKGROUND

Cancer survivors are challenging patients, as they often present increased cardiovascular risk. In this background, cardio-oncology rehabilitation frameworks for specific cancer patients have been proposed. However, optimal program designs, as well as their overall safety and efficacy in different subsets of patients, are not fully ascertained.

DESIGN

Single-center, pragmatic, prospective, randomized controlled trial performed in Portugal aiming to evaluate the impact of a center-based cardiac rehabilitation program, consisting of exercise training, nutritional counselling, psychosocial management and lifestyle behavior change, compared to community-based exercise training, in cancer survivors.

METHODS

Adult cancer survivors (N = 80) exposed to cardiotoxic cancer treatment and/or with previous cardiovascular disease will be randomized (1:1) to receive either an eight-week cardiac rehabilitation program or community-based exercise training. Primary endpoint is cardiorespiratory fitness; secondary endpoints are physical activity, psychosocial parameters, blood pressure, body composition, lipids and inflammatory parameters. Physical function, quality of life, fatigue, health literacy, and feasibility will be assessed; a cost-effectiveness evaluation will also be performed. Between-group differences at baseline and in the change from baseline to the end of the study will be tested with unpaired t-tests or Mann-Whitney U test. Paired t-tests or Wilcoxon signed-rank test will be performed for within-group comparisons.

CONCLUSION

This trial will address the overall impact of a contemporary cardiac rehabilitation program framework in cancer survivors, as compared to a community-based exercise training. Given the higher cardiovascular risk in several groups of cancer patients, our results could provide novel insights into optimized preventive strategies in this complex patient population.

Clinical experience of a cardio-oncology consultation at a tertiary university hospital in Portugal: An observational study

INTRODUCTION

Heart disease and cancer are the two leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Advances in cancer screening and management have led to longer survival and better quality of life. Despite this progress, many cancer patients experience cardiovascular complications during and after cancer treatment. This study describes the experience of a cardio-oncology program at tertiary academic hospital.

METHODS

In this retrospective observational study, cancer patients referred to the CHULN cardio-oncology consultation (COC) between January 2016 and December of 2019 were included. Data collected included: patient demographics, cancer type, reason for referral, cardiovascular risk factors, cardiac and oncologic treatments and clinical outcomes.

RESULTS

A total of 520 patients (mean age: 65 ± 14 years; 65% women) were referred to the COC. The main reasons for referral were suspected heart failure (26%), pre-high risk chemotherapy assessment (20%) and decreased LVEF (15%). Pre-existing cardiovascular risk factors were common (79%) and 309 (59%) were taking cardiac medications. The most common type of malignancy was breast cancer (216, 41%) followed by gastrointestinal (139, 27%). More than half received anthracycline-based regimens (303, 58%). Most patients (401; 77%) successfully completed cancer therapy. At the time of last data collection, the majority of patients were alive (430, 83%). Cardiac-related mortality was observed in 16%.

CONCLUSIONS

The close collaboration between cardiology and oncology teams and timely cardiac monitoring was the key to the majority of patients to completing their prescribed cancer therapy.

Cardiotoxicity is mitigated after a supervised exercise program in HER2-positive breast cancer undergoing adjuvant trastuzumab

Background

Trastuzumab is used, alone or in conjunction with standard chemotherapy, to treat HER2-positive breast cancer (BC). Although it improves cancer outcomes, trastuzumab. can lead to cardiotoxicity. Physical exercise is a safe and effective supportive therapy in the management of side effects, but the cardioprotective effects of exercise are still unclear.

Objectives

The primary aim of this study was to test whether trastuzumab-induced cardiotoxicity [left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) under 50%, or an absolute drop in LVEF of 10%] was reduced after a supervised exercise program of 3 months in patients with HER2-positive breast cancer. Secondary endpoints were to evaluate (i) cardiotoxicity rates using other criteria, (ii) cardiac parameters, (iii) cardiorespiratory fitness and (iv) whether a change in LVEF influences the cardiorespiratory fitness.

Methods

89 women were randomized to receive adjuvant trastuzumab in combination with a training program (training group: TG; n = 46) or trastuzumab alone (control group: CG; n = 43). The primary and secondary endpoints were evaluated at the end of the supervised exercise program of 3 months (T3).

Results

After exercise program, 90.5 % of TG patients and 81.8% of CG patients did not exhibit cardiotoxicity. Furthermore, whatever the used criterion, percentage of patients without cardiotoxicity were greater in TG (97.6 and 100% respectively) than in CG (90.9 and 93.9% respectively). LVEF and GLS values remained stable in both groups without any difference between the groups. In contrast, at T3, peak VO2 (+2.6 mL.min−1.kg−1; 95%CI, 1.8 to 3.4) and maximal power (+21.3 W; 95%CI, 17.3 to 25.3) increased significantly in TG, whereas they were unchanged in CG (peak VO2: +0.2 mL.min−1.kg−1; 95%CI, −0.5 to 0.9 and maximal power: +0.7 W, 95%CI, −3.6 to 5.1) compared to values measured at T0. No correlation between LVEF changes and peak VO2 or maximal power was observed.

Conclusion

A 12-week supervised exercise regimen was safe and improved the cardiopulmonary fitness in particular peak VO2, in HER2-positive BC patients treated with adjuvant trastuzumab therapy. The study is under powered to come to any conclusion regarding the effect on cardiotoxicity.

Clinical trial registration

www.ClinicalTrials.gov, identifier: NCT02433067.

Cardio-Oncology Rehabilitation and Telehealth: Rationale for Future Integration in Supportive Care of Cancer Survivors

The direct toxicity of cancer treatment threatens patients and survivors with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease or adverse functional changes with subsequent progression of cardiovascular complications. An accumulation of cardiovascular risk factors combined with an unhealthy lifestyle has recently become more common in cancer patients and survivors. It has been recommended to integrate a comprehensive cardiac rehabilitation model called cardio-oncology rehabilitation to mitigate cardiovascular risk. Nevertheless, cardiac rehabilitation interventions limit barriers in low utilization, further exacerbated by the restrictions associated with the COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, it is essential to integrate alternative interventions such as telehealth, which can overcome several barriers. This literature review was designed as a framework for developing and evaluating telehealth interventions and mobile applications for comprehensive cardio-oncology rehabilitation. We identify knowledge gaps and propose strategies to facilitate the development and integration of cardio-oncology rehabilitation telehealth as an alternative approach to the standard of care for cancer patients and survivors. Despite the limited evidence, the pilot results from included studies support the feasibility and acceptability of telehealth and mobile technologies in cardio-oncology rehabilitation. This new area suggests that telehealth interventions are feasible and induce physiological and psychological benefits for cancer patients and survivors. There is an assumption that telehealth interventions and exercise may be an effective future alternative approach in supportive cancer care.

Combined Usage of Trimetazidine With 3-Bromopyruvate May Lead to Cardiotoxicity by Activating Oxidative Stress and Apoptosis in Rats

ABSTRACT

The energy used by the heart is generated mainly by the metabolism of fatty acids and glucose. Trimetazidine (TMZ) inhibits fatty acid metabolism and is used for the treatment of heart diseases such as heart failure. 3-Bromopyruvate (3-BrPA) can suppress glucose metabolism, and it is considered a promising candidate agent for tumor therapy. Because TMZ and 3-BrPA can separately inhibit the 2 main cardiac energy sources, it is necessary to investigate the effects of 3-BrPA combined with TMZ on the heart. Forty male Wistar rats were randomly divided into 4 groups: a control group, a TMZ group, a 3-BrPA group, and a 3-BrPA + TMZ group. Weight was recorded every day, and echocardiography was performed 14 days later. Heart function, the levels of adenosine triphosphate, oxidative stress-related factors (ROS, glutathione, oxidized glutathione, malondialdehyde, superoxide dismutase and total antioxidant capacity), and apoptosis in heart tissues were assessed to evaluate the effects of 3-BrPA and TMZ on the heart. In our study, no obvious changes occurred in the 3-BrPA group or the TMZ group compared with the control group. The combination of 3-BrPA and TMZ worsened heart function, decreased adenosine triphosphate levels, and increased oxidative stress and myocardial apoptosis. In conclusion, 3-BrPA and TMZ are not recommended for concurrent use.

A Cardiac Rehabilitation Program for Breast Cancer Survivors: A Feasibility Study

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to determine the feasibility and preliminary efficacy of a cardiac rehabilitation (CR) intervention in the breast cancer population.

Methods

This single-arm feasibility study evaluated a 14-week CR intervention program in breast cancer survivors. Feasibility was defined as completion of at least 30/36 sessions of the program without serious adverse events (SAE) in 80% of patients. Secondary endpoints included the change in VO2 max, cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors, Duke Activity Secondary Index (DASI), Brief Fatigue Inventory (BFI), and QLQ-C30. All outcomes were reported as mean change and compared using paired t-tests.

Results

A total of 25 patients were enrolled in the study. 18 patients of the 25 enrolled (72%) completed the 14 weeks program without SAE. The overall adherence to the study protocol was 60%. Of the 18 participants who did not withdraw from the program, 15 (83%) adhered to the study protocol and completed 30 or more sessions. There was a nonsignificant improvement in VO2 max (mean Δ0.5, p=0.6). The scores for DASI, BFI, and QLQ-C30 improved from baseline to posttreatment.

Conclusion

A CR intervention in breast cancer survivors had high adherence in those who were able to complete the 14-week program. The program significantly improved patient reported physical activity, fatigue, and quality of life (QoL), without significant improvement in CVD risk factors. Implications for cancer patients are that early implementation of a CR program should be considered by practitioners as it improves QoL and exercise tolerance in breast cancer survivors.

A randomized trial to evaluate the impact of exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation for the prevention of chemotherapy-induced cardiotoxicity in patients with breast cancer: ONCORE study protocol

Background

Anthracyclines and monoclonal antibodies against human epidermal growth factor receptor-2 (HER2) are frequently used to treat breast cancer but they are associated with risk of developing cardiotoxicity. Implementation of cardioprotective strategies as part of breast cancer treatment are needed. To date, a limited number of studies have examined the effectiveness of cardiac rehabilitation programs or exercise programs in the prevention of cardiotoxicity through an integral assessment of cardiac function. The ONCORE study proposes an exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation program as a non-pharmacological tool for the management of chemotherapy-induced cardiotoxicity.

Methods

The study protocol describes a prospective, randomized controlled trial aimed to determine whether an intervention through an exercise-based CR program can effectively prevent cardiotoxicity induced by anthracyclines and/or anti-HER2 antibodies in women with breast cancer. Three hundred and forty women with breast cancer at early stages scheduled to receive cardiotoxic chemotherapy will be randomly assigned (1:1) to participation in an exercise-based CR program (intervention group) or to usual care and physical activity recommendation (control group). Primary outcomes include changes in left ventricular ejection fraction and global longitudinal strain as markers of cardiac dysfunction assessed by transthoracic echocardiography. Secondary outcomes comprise levels of cardiovascular biomarkers and cardiopulmonary function through peak oxygen uptake determination, physical performance and psychosocial status. Supervised exercise program-related outcomes including safety, adherence/compliance, expectations and physical exercise in- and out-of-hospital are studied as exploratory outcomes. Transthoracic echocardiography, clinical test and questionnaires will be performed at the beginning and two weeks after completion of chemotherapy.

Discussion

The growing incidence of breast cancer and the risk of cardiotoxicity derived from cancer treatments demand adjuvant cardioprotective strategies. The proposed study may determine if an exercise-based CR program is effective in minimizing chemotherapy-induced cardiotoxicity in this population of women with early-stage breast cancer. The proposed research question is concrete, with relevant clinical implications, transferable to clinical practice and achievable with low risk.

Trial registration ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03964142. Registered on 28 May 2019. Retrospectively registered. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03964142

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12872-021-01970-2.

Cardiac rehabilitation and its essential role in the secondary prevention of cardiovascular diseases

Cardiovascular diseases are the most common causes of mortality worldwide. They are frequently the reasons for patient hospitalization, their incapability for work, and disability. These diseases represent a significant socio-economic burden affecting the medical system as well as patients and their families. It has been demonstrated that the etiopathogenesis of cardiovascular diseases is significantly affected by lifestyle, and so modification of the latter is an essential component of both primary and secondary prevention. Cardiac rehabilitation (CR) represents an efficient secondary prevention model that is especially based on the positive effect of regular physical activity. This review presents an overview of basic information on CR with a focus on current trends, such as the issue of the various training modalities, utilization, and barriers to it or the use of telemedicine technologies. Appropriate attention should be devoted to these domains, as CR continues evolving as an effective and readily available intervention in the future.

The core components of cardio-oncology rehabilitation

The increased efficacy of cancer therapy has resulted in greater cancer survival and increasing number of people with cancer and cardiovascular diseases. The sharing of risk factors, the bidirectional relationship between cancer and cardiovascular diseases and the cardiotoxic effect of chemotherapy and radiotherapy, are the cause of the rapid expansion of cardio-oncology. All strategies to preserve cardiovascular health and mitigate the negative effect of cancer therapy, by reducing the cardiovascular risk, must be pursued to enable the timely and complete delivery of anticancer therapy and to achieve the longest remission of the disease. Comprehensive cardiac rehabilitation is an easy-to-use model, even in cancer care, and is the basis of Cardio-Oncology REhabilitation (CORE), an exercise-based multi-component intervention. In addition, CORE, besides using the rationale and knowledge of cardiac rehabilitation, can leverage the network of cardiac rehabilitation services to offer to cancer patients exercise programs, control of risk factors, psychological support, and nutrition counseling. The core components of CORE will be discussed, describing the beneficial effect on cardiorespiratory fitness, quality of life, psychological and physical well-being, and weight management. Furthermore, particular attention will be paid to how CORE can counterbalance the negative effect of therapies in those at heightened cardiovascular risk after a cancer diagnosis. Barriers for implementation, including personal, family, social and of the health care system barriers for a widespread diffusion of the CORE will also be discussed. Finally, there will be a call-to-action, for randomized clinical trials that can test the impact of CORE, on morbidity and mortality.