1
|
Barreiro C, Albillos SM, García-Estrada C. Penicillium chrysogenum: Beyond the penicillin. ADVANCES IN APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY 2024; 127:143-221. [PMID: 38763527 DOI: 10.1016/bs.aambs.2024.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2024]
Abstract
Almost one century after the Sir Alexander Fleming's fortuitous discovery of penicillin and the identification of the fungal producer as Penicillium notatum, later Penicillium chrysogenum (currently reidentified as Penicillium rubens), the molecular mechanisms behind the massive production of penicillin titers by industrial strains could be considered almost fully characterized. However, this filamentous fungus is not only circumscribed to penicillin, and instead, it seems to be full of surprises, thereby producing important metabolites and providing expanded biotechnological applications. This review, in addition to summarizing the classical role of P. chrysogenum as penicillin producer, highlights its ability to generate an array of additional bioactive secondary metabolites and enzymes, together with the use of this microorganism in relevant biotechnological processes, such as bioremediation, biocontrol, production of bioactive nanoparticles and compounds with pharmaceutical interest, revalorization of agricultural and food-derived wastes or the enhancement of food industrial processes and the agricultural production.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Barreiro
- Área de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Departamento de Biología Molecular, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de León, León, Spain; Instituto de Biología Molecular, Genómica y Proteómica (INBIOMIC), Universidad de León, León, Spain.
| | - Silvia M Albillos
- Área de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Departamento de Biotecnología y Ciencia de los Alimentos, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Burgos, Burgos, Spain
| | - Carlos García-Estrada
- Departamento de Ciencias Biomédicas, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de León, León, Spain; Instituto de Biomedicina (IBIOMED), Universidad de León, León, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Giner-Llorca M, Locascio A, Del Real JA, Marcos JF, Manzanares P. Novel findings about the mode of action of the antifungal protein PeAfpA against Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2023; 107:6811-6829. [PMID: 37688596 PMCID: PMC10589166 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-023-12749-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2023] [Revised: 08/13/2023] [Accepted: 08/24/2023] [Indexed: 09/11/2023]
Abstract
Antifungal proteins (AFPs) from filamentous fungi offer the potential to control fungal infections that threaten human health and food safety. AFPs exhibit broad antifungal spectra against harmful fungi, but limited knowledge of their killing mechanism hinders their potential applicability. PeAfpA from Penicillium expansum shows strong antifungal potency against plant and human fungal pathogens and stands above other AFPs for being active against the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. We took advantage of this and used a model laboratory strain of S. cerevisiae to gain insight into the mode of action of PeAfpA by combining (i) transcriptional profiling, (ii) PeAfpA sensitivity analyses of deletion mutants available in the S. cerevisiae genomic deletion collection and (iii) cell biology studies using confocal microscopy. Results highlighted and confirmed the role of the yeast cell wall (CW) in the interaction with PeAfpA, which can be internalized through both energy-dependent and independent mechanisms. The combined results also suggest an active role of the CW integrity (CWI) pathway and the cAMP-PKA signalling in the PeAfpA killing mechanism. Besides, our studies revealed the involvement of phosphatidylinositol metabolism and the participation of ROX3, which codes for the subunit 19 of the RNA polymerase II mediator complex, in the yeast defence strategy. In conclusion, our study provides clues about both the killing mechanism of PeAfpA and the fungus defence strategies against the protein, suggesting also targets for the development of new antifungals. KEY POINTS: • PeAfpA is a cell-penetrating protein with inhibitory activity against S. cerevisiae. • The CW integrity (CWI) pathway is a key player in the PeAfpA killing mechanism. • Phosphatidylinositol metabolism and ROX3 are involved in the yeast defence strategy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Moisés Giner-Llorca
- Department of Food Biotechnology, Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (IATA), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Catedrático Agustín Escardino 7, Paterna, Valencia, 46980, Spain
| | - Antonella Locascio
- Department of Food Biotechnology, Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (IATA), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Catedrático Agustín Escardino 7, Paterna, Valencia, 46980, Spain
| | - Javier Alonso Del Real
- Department of Food Biotechnology, Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (IATA), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Catedrático Agustín Escardino 7, Paterna, Valencia, 46980, Spain
| | - Jose F Marcos
- Department of Food Biotechnology, Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (IATA), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Catedrático Agustín Escardino 7, Paterna, Valencia, 46980, Spain
| | - Paloma Manzanares
- Department of Food Biotechnology, Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (IATA), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Catedrático Agustín Escardino 7, Paterna, Valencia, 46980, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Giner-Llorca M, Gallego del Sol F, Marcos JF, Marina A, Manzanares P. Rationally designed antifungal protein chimeras reveal new insights into structure-activity relationship. Int J Biol Macromol 2023; 225:135-148. [PMID: 36460243 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.11.280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2022] [Revised: 11/25/2022] [Accepted: 11/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Antifungal proteins (AFPs) are promising antimicrobial compounds that represent a feasible alternative to fungicides. Penicillium expansum encodes three phylogenetically distinct AFPs (PeAfpA, PeAfpB and PeAfpC) which show different antifungal profiles and fruit protection effects. To gain knowledge about the structural determinants governing their activity, we solved the crystal structure of PeAfpB and rationally designed five PeAfpA::PeAfpB chimeras (chPeAFPV1-V5). Chimeras showed significant differences in their antifungal activity. chPeAFPV1 and chPeAFPV2 improved the parental PeAfpB potency, and it was very similar to that of PeAfpA. chPeAFPV4 and chPeAFPV5 showed an intermediate profile of activity compared to the parental proteins while chPeAFPV3 was inactive towards most of the fungi tested. Structural analysis of the chimeras evidenced an identical scaffold to PeAfpB, suggesting that the differences in activity are due to the contributions of specific residues and not to induced conformational changes or structural rearrangements. Results suggest that mannoproteins determine protein interaction with the cell wall and its antifungal activity while there is not a direct correlation between binding to membrane phospholipids and activity. This work provides new insights about the relevance of sequence motifs and the feasibility of modifying protein specificity, opening the door to the rational design of chimeras with biotechnological applicability.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Moisés Giner-Llorca
- Food Biotechnology Department, Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (IATA), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Catedrático Agustín Escardino Benlloch 7, 46980 Paterna, Valencia, Spain
| | - Francisca Gallego del Sol
- Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia (IBV), CSIC and CIBER de Enfermedades Raras (CIBERER), Jaume Roig 11, 46010, Valencia, Spain
| | - Jose F Marcos
- Food Biotechnology Department, Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (IATA), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Catedrático Agustín Escardino Benlloch 7, 46980 Paterna, Valencia, Spain
| | - Alberto Marina
- Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia (IBV), CSIC and CIBER de Enfermedades Raras (CIBERER), Jaume Roig 11, 46010, Valencia, Spain.
| | - Paloma Manzanares
- Food Biotechnology Department, Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (IATA), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Catedrático Agustín Escardino Benlloch 7, 46980 Paterna, Valencia, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Choudhary M, Kumar V, Naik B, Verma A, Saris PEJ, Kumar V, Gupta S. Antifungal metabolites, their novel sources, and targets to combat drug resistance. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:1061603. [PMID: 36532457 PMCID: PMC9755354 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.1061603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2022] [Accepted: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Excessive antibiotic prescriptions as well as their misuse in agriculture are the main causes of antimicrobial resistance which poses a growing threat to public health. It necessitates the search for novel chemicals to combat drug resistance. Since ancient times, naturally occurring medicines have been employed and the enormous variety of bioactive chemicals found in nature has long served as an inspiration for researchers looking for possible therapeutics. Secondary metabolites from microorganisms, particularly those from actinomycetes, have made it incredibly easy to find new molecules. Different actinomycetes species account for more than 70% of naturally generated antibiotics currently used in medicine, and they also produce a variety of secondary metabolites, including pigments, enzymes, and anti-inflammatory compounds. They continue to be a crucial source of fresh chemical diversity and a crucial component of drug discovery. This review summarizes some uncommon sources of antifungal metabolites and highlights the importance of further research on these unusual habitats as a source of novel antimicrobial molecules.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Megha Choudhary
- Himalayan School of Biosciences, Swami Rama Himalayan University, Dehradun, India
| | - Vijay Kumar
- Himalayan School of Biosciences, Swami Rama Himalayan University, Dehradun, India
| | - Bindu Naik
- Department of Life Sciences (Food Technology & Nutrition), Graphic Era (Deemed to be University), Dehradun, India
| | - Ankit Verma
- Himalayan School of Biosciences, Swami Rama Himalayan University, Dehradun, India
| | - Per Erik Joakim Saris
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Vivek Kumar
- Himalayan School of Biosciences, Swami Rama Himalayan University, Dehradun, India
| | - Sanjay Gupta
- Himalayan School of Biosciences, Swami Rama Himalayan University, Dehradun, India
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Kakar A, Sastré-Velásquez LE, Hess M, Galgóczy L, Papp C, Holzknecht J, Romanelli A, Váradi G, Malanovic N, Marx F. The Membrane Activity of the Amphibian Temporin B Peptide Analog TB_KKG6K Sheds Light on the Mechanism That Kills Candida albicans. mSphere 2022; 7:e0029022. [PMID: 35972132 PMCID: PMC9599520 DOI: 10.1128/msphere.00290-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2022] [Accepted: 07/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Temporin B (TB) is a 13-amino-acid-long, cationic peptide secreted by the granular glands of the European frog Rana temporaria. We recently showed that the modified TB peptide analog TB_KKG6K rapidly killed planktonic and sessile Candida albicans at low micromolar concentrations and was neither hemolytic nor cytotoxic to mammalian cells in vitro. The present study aimed to shed light into its mechanism of action, with a focus on its fungal cell membrane activity. We utilized different fluorescent dyes to prove that it rapidly induces membrane depolarization and permeabilization. Studies on model membrane systems revealed that the TB analog undergoes hydrophobic and electrostatic membrane interactions, showing a preference for anionic lipids, and identified phosphatidylinositol and cardiolipin as possible peptide targets. Fluorescence microscopy using fluorescein isothiocyanate-labeled TB_KKG6K in the presence of the lipophilic dye FM4-64 indicated that the peptide compromises membrane integrity and rapidly enters C. albicans cells in an energy-independent manner. Peptide-treated cells analyzed by cryo-based electron microscopy exhibited no signs of cell lysis; however, subcellular structures had disintegrated, suggesting that intracellular activity may form part of the killing mechanism of the peptide. Taken together, this study proved that TB_KKG6K compromises C. albicans membrane function, which explains the previously observed rapid, fungicidal mode of action and supports its great potential as a future anti-Candida therapeutic. IMPORTANCE Fungal infections with the opportunistic human pathogen C. albicans are associated with high mortality rates in immunocompromised patients. This is partly due to the yeast's ability to rapidly develop resistance toward currently available antifungals. Small, cationic, membrane-active peptides are promising compounds to fight against resistance development, as many of them effectuate rapid fungal cell death. This fast killing is believed to hamper the development of resistance, as the fungi do not have sufficient time to adapt to the antifungal compound. We previously reported that the synthetic variant of the amphibian TB peptide, TB_KKG6K, rapidly kills C. albicans. In the current study, the mechanism of action of the TB analog was investigated. We show that this TB analog is membrane-active and impairs cell membrane function, highlighting its potential to be developed as an attractive alternative anti-C. albicans therapeutic that may hinder the development of resistance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anant Kakar
- Biocenter, Institute of Molecular Biology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | | | - Michael Hess
- Institute for Histology and Embryology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - László Galgóczy
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
- Institute of Biochemistry, Biological Research Centre, Eötvös Loránd Research Network, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Csaba Papp
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Jeanett Holzknecht
- Biocenter, Institute of Molecular Biology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | | | - Györgyi Váradi
- Department of Medical Chemistry, Albert Szent-Györgyi Medical School, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Nermina Malanovic
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, Field of Excellence BioHealth, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Florentine Marx
- Biocenter, Institute of Molecular Biology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Special Issue "Control of Postharvest Pathogenic Penicillium". J Fungi (Basel) 2022; 8:jof8090947. [PMID: 36135672 PMCID: PMC9503766 DOI: 10.3390/jof8090947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2022] [Revised: 09/07/2022] [Accepted: 09/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
|
7
|
Holzknecht J, Dubrac S, Hedtrich S, Galgóczy L, Marx F. Small, Cationic Antifungal Proteins from Filamentous Fungi Inhibit Candida albicans Growth in 3D Skin Infection Models. Microbiol Spectr 2022; 10:e0029922. [PMID: 35499318 PMCID: PMC9241769 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.00299-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2022] [Accepted: 04/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The emerging resistance of human-pathogenic fungi to antifungal drugs urges the development of alternative therapeutic strategies. The small, cationic antifungal proteins (AFPs) from filamentous ascomycetes represent promising candidates for next-generation antifungals. These bio-molecules need to be tested for tolerance in the host and efficacy against fungal pathogens before they can be safely applied in humans. Testing of the efficacy and possible adverse effects of new drug candidates in three-dimensional (3D) human-cell based models represents an advantageous alternative to animal experiments. In, this study, as a proof-of-principle, we demonstrate the usefulness of 3D skin infection models for screening new antifungal drug candidates for topical application. We established a cutaneous infection with the opportunistic human-pathogenic yeast Candida albicans in a commercially available 3D full-thickness (FT) skin model to test the curative potential of distinct AFPs from Penicillium chrysogenum (PAFopt, PAFB, and PAFC) and Neosartorya (Aspergillus) fischeri (NFAP2) in vitro. All tested AFPs were comparably well tolerated by the skin models. The infected 3D models exhibited reduced epidermal permeability barriers, allowing C. albicans to colonize the epidermal and dermal layers, and showed increased secretion of the pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-6 and the chemokine IL-8. AFP treatment diminished the fungal burden and penetration depth of C. albicans in the infected models. The epidermal permeability barrier was restored and the secretion of IL-8 was decreased following AFP treatment. In summary, our study proves that the tested AFPs exhibit antifungal potential against cutaneous C. albicans infection in a 3D FT skin model. IMPORTANCE Candida albicans represents one of the most prevalent opportunistic fungal pathogens, causing superficial skin and mucosal infections in humans with certain predisposing health conditions and life-threatening systemic infections in immunosuppressed patients. The emerging drug resistance of this human-pathogenic yeast and the limited number of antifungal drugs for prevention and treatment of infections urgently demands the identification of new antifungal compounds with novel mechanisms of action. Small, cationic antifungal proteins (AFPs) from filamentous fungi represent promising candidates for next-generation antifungals for topical application. These bio-molecules need to be tested for tolerance by the host and efficacy in pathogen clearance prior to being involved in clinical trials. In a proof-of-principle study, we provide evidence for the suitability of 3D human-cell based models as advantageous alternatives to animal experiments. We document the tolerance of specific AFPs and their curative efficacy against cutaneous C. albicans infection in a 3D skin model.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jeanett Holzknecht
- Biocenter, Institute of Molecular Biology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Sandrine Dubrac
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Sarah Hedtrich
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - László Galgóczy
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
- Institute of Biochemistry, Biological Research Centre, Eötvös Loránd Research Network, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Florentine Marx
- Biocenter, Institute of Molecular Biology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Gandía M, Moreno‐Giménez E, Giner‐Llorca M, Garrigues S, Ropero‐Pérez C, Locascio A, Martínez‐Culebras PV, Marcos JF, Manzanares P. Development of a FungalBraid Penicillium expansum-based expression system for the production of antifungal proteins in fungal biofactories. Microb Biotechnol 2022; 15:630-647. [PMID: 35084102 PMCID: PMC8867986 DOI: 10.1111/1751-7915.14006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2021] [Accepted: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Fungal antifungal proteins (AFPs) have attracted attention as novel biofungicides. Their exploitation requires safe and cost-effective producing biofactories. Previously, Penicillium chrysogenum and Penicillium digitatum produced recombinant AFPs with the use of a P. chrysogenum-based expression system that consisted of the paf gene promoter, signal peptide (SP)-pro sequence and terminator. Here, the regulatory elements of the afpA gene encoding the highly produced PeAfpA from Penicillium expansum were developed as an expression system for AFP production through the FungalBraid platform. The afpA cassette was tested to produce PeAfpA and P. digitatum PdAfpB in P. chrysogenum and P. digitatum, and its efficiency was compared to that of the paf cassette. Recombinant PeAfpA production was only achieved using the afpA cassette, being P. chrysogenum a more efficient biofactory than P. digitatum. Conversely, P. chrysogenum only produced PdAfpB under the control of the paf cassette. In P. digitatum, both expression systems allowed PdAfpB production, with the paf cassette resulting in higher protein yields. Interestingly, these results did not correlate with the performance of both promoters in a luciferase reporter system. In conclusion, AFP production is a complex outcome that depends on the regulatory sequences driving afp expression, the fungal biofactory and the AFP sequence.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mónica Gandía
- Food Biotechnology DepartmentConsejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC)Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (IATA)Catedrático Agustín Escardino Benlloch 7Paterna, Valencia46980Spain
- Present address:
Departamento de Medicina Preventiva y Salud PúblicaCiencias de la Alimentación, Bromatología, Toxicología y Medicina LegalUniversitat de ValènciaVicente Andrés Estellés s/nValencia46100Spain
| | - Elena Moreno‐Giménez
- Food Biotechnology DepartmentConsejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC)Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (IATA)Catedrático Agustín Escardino Benlloch 7Paterna, Valencia46980Spain
- Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC)Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Plantas (IBMCP)Universidad Politécnica de ValenciaValenciaSpain
| | - Moisés Giner‐Llorca
- Food Biotechnology DepartmentConsejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC)Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (IATA)Catedrático Agustín Escardino Benlloch 7Paterna, Valencia46980Spain
| | - Sandra Garrigues
- Food Biotechnology DepartmentConsejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC)Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (IATA)Catedrático Agustín Escardino Benlloch 7Paterna, Valencia46980Spain
| | - Carolina Ropero‐Pérez
- Food Biotechnology DepartmentConsejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC)Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (IATA)Catedrático Agustín Escardino Benlloch 7Paterna, Valencia46980Spain
| | - Antonella Locascio
- Food Biotechnology DepartmentConsejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC)Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (IATA)Catedrático Agustín Escardino Benlloch 7Paterna, Valencia46980Spain
| | - Pedro V. Martínez‐Culebras
- Food Biotechnology DepartmentConsejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC)Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (IATA)Catedrático Agustín Escardino Benlloch 7Paterna, Valencia46980Spain
- Departamento de Medicina Preventiva y Salud PúblicaCiencias de la Alimentación, Bromatología, Toxicología y Medicina LegalUniversitat de ValènciaVicente Andrés Estellés s/nValencia46100Spain
| | - Jose F. Marcos
- Food Biotechnology DepartmentConsejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC)Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (IATA)Catedrático Agustín Escardino Benlloch 7Paterna, Valencia46980Spain
| | - Paloma Manzanares
- Food Biotechnology DepartmentConsejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC)Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (IATA)Catedrático Agustín Escardino Benlloch 7Paterna, Valencia46980Spain
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Antifungal Peptides and Proteins to Control Toxigenic Fungi and Mycotoxin Biosynthesis. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222413261. [PMID: 34948059 PMCID: PMC8703302 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222413261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2021] [Revised: 11/24/2021] [Accepted: 11/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The global challenge to prevent fungal spoilage and mycotoxin contamination on food and feed requires the development of new antifungal strategies. Antimicrobial peptides and proteins (AMPs) with antifungal activity are gaining much interest as natural antifungal compounds due to their properties such as structure diversity and function, antifungal spectrum, mechanism of action, high stability and the availability of biotechnological production methods. Given their multistep mode of action, the development of fungal resistance to AMPs is presumed to be slow or delayed compared to conventional fungicides. Interestingly, AMPs also accomplish important biological functions other than antifungal activity, including anti-mycotoxin biosynthesis activity, which opens novel aspects for their future use in agriculture and food industry to fight mycotoxin contamination. AMPs can reach intracellular targets and exert their activity by mechanisms other than membrane permeabilization. The mechanisms through which AMPs affect mycotoxin production are varied and complex, ranging from oxidative stress to specific inhibition of enzymatic components of mycotoxin biosynthetic pathways. This review presents natural and synthetic antifungal AMPs from different origins which are effective against mycotoxin-producing fungi, and aims at summarizing current knowledge concerning their additional effects on mycotoxin biosynthesis. Antifungal AMPs properties and mechanisms of action are also discussed.
Collapse
|
10
|
Verma R, Pradhan D, Hasan Z, Singh H, Jain AK, Khan LA. A systematic review on distribution and antifungal resistance pattern of Candida species in the Indian population. Med Mycol 2021; 59:1145-1165. [PMID: 34625811 DOI: 10.1093/mmy/myab058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2021] [Revised: 09/16/2021] [Accepted: 09/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The emergence of antifungal drug resistance in Candida species has led to increased morbidity and mortality in immunocompromised patients. Understanding species distribution and antifungal drug resistance patterns is an essential step for novel drug development. A systematic review was performed addressing this challenge in India with keywords inclusive of 'Candida', 'Antifungal Drug Resistance', 'Candidemia', 'Candidiasis' and 'India'. A total of 106 studies (January 1978-March 2020) from 20 Indian states were included. Of over 11,429 isolates, Candida albicans was the major species accounting for 37.95% of total isolates followed by C. tropicalis (29.40%), C. glabrata (11.68%) and C. parapsilosis (8.36%). Rates of antifungal resistance were highest in non-albicans Candida (NAC) species - C. haemuloni (47.16%), C. krusei (28.99%), C. lipolytica (28.89%) and C. glabrata (20.69%). Approximately 10.34% isolates of C. albicans were observed to be drug-resistant. Candida species were frequently resistant to certain azoles (ketoconazole-22.2%, miconazole-22.1% and fluconazole-21.8%). In conclusion, the present systematic review illustrates the overall distribution and antifungal resistance pattern of Candida species among the Indian population that could be helpful in the future for the formation of treatment recommendations for the region but also elsewhere.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rashi Verma
- Department of Biosciences, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India.,Biomedical Informatics Centre, ICMR-National Institute of Pathology, New Delhi, India
| | - Dibyabhaba Pradhan
- Indian Council of Medical Research - Computational Genomics Centre, All India Institute of Medical Research, New Delhi, India
| | - Ziaul Hasan
- Department of Biosciences, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India
| | - Harpreet Singh
- Indian Council of Medical Research - Computational Genomics Centre, All India Institute of Medical Research, New Delhi, India
| | - Arun Kumar Jain
- Biomedical Informatics Centre, ICMR-National Institute of Pathology, New Delhi, India
| | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Krain A, Siupka P. Fungal Guttation, a Source of Bioactive Compounds, and Its Ecological Role-A Review. Biomolecules 2021; 11:biom11091270. [PMID: 34572483 PMCID: PMC8467351 DOI: 10.3390/biom11091270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2021] [Revised: 08/13/2021] [Accepted: 08/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Guttation is a common phenomenon in the fungal kingdom. Its occurrence and intensity depend largely on culture conditions, such as growth medium composition or incubation temperature. As filamentous fungi are a rich source of compounds, possessing various biological activities, guttation exudates could also contain bioactive substances. Among such molecules, researchers have already found numerous mycotoxins, antimicrobials, insecticides, bioherbicides, antiviral, and anticancer agents in exudate droplets. They belong to either secondary metabolites (SMs) or proteins and are secreted with different intensities. The background of guttation, in terms of its biological role, in vivo, and promoting factors, has been explored only partially. In this review, we describe the metabolites present in fungal exudates, their diversity, and bioactivities. Pointing to the significance of fungal ecology and natural products discovery, selected aspects of guttation in the fungi are discussed.
Collapse
|
12
|
Kakar A, Holzknecht J, Dubrac S, Gelmi ML, Romanelli A, Marx F. New Perspectives in the Antimicrobial Activity of the Amphibian Temporin B: Peptide Analogs Are Effective Inhibitors of Candida albicans Growth. J Fungi (Basel) 2021; 7:457. [PMID: 34200504 PMCID: PMC8226839 DOI: 10.3390/jof7060457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2021] [Revised: 05/31/2021] [Accepted: 05/31/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Temporin B (TB) is a short, positively charged peptide secreted by the granular glands of the European frog Rana temporaria. While the antibacterial and antiviral efficacy of TB and some of its improved analogs are well documented, nothing is known about their antifungal potency so far. We dedicated this study to characterize the antifungal potential of the TB analog TB_KKG6K and the newly designed D-Lys_TB_KKG6K, the latter having the L-lysines replaced by the chiral counterpart D-lysines to improve its proteolytic stability. Both peptides inhibited the growth of opportunistic human pathogenic yeasts and killed planktonic and sessile cells of the most prevalent human pathogen, Candida albicans. The anti-yeast efficacy of the peptides coincided with the induction of intracellular reactive oxygen species. Their thermal, cation, pH and serum tolerance were similar, while the proteolytic stability of D-Lys_TB_KKG6K was superior to that of its template peptide. Importantly, both peptides lacked hemolytic activity and showed minimal in vitro cytotoxicity in primary human keratinocytes. The tolerance of both peptides in a reconstructed human epidermis model further supports their potential for topical application. Our results open up an exciting field of research for new anti-Candida therapeutic options based on amphibian TB analogs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anant Kakar
- Biocenter, Institute of Molecular Biology, Medical University of Innsbruck, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria; (A.K.); (J.H.)
| | - Jeanett Holzknecht
- Biocenter, Institute of Molecular Biology, Medical University of Innsbruck, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria; (A.K.); (J.H.)
| | - Sandrine Dubrac
- Department of Dermatology, Venerology and Allergy, Medical University of Innsbruck, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria;
| | - Maria Luisa Gelmi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Milan, I-20133 Milano, Italy;
| | - Alessandra Romanelli
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Milan, I-20133 Milano, Italy;
| | - Florentine Marx
- Biocenter, Institute of Molecular Biology, Medical University of Innsbruck, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria; (A.K.); (J.H.)
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Gandía M, Kakar A, Giner-Llorca M, Holzknecht J, Martínez-Culebras P, Galgóczy L, Marx F, Marcos JF, Manzanares P. Potential of Antifungal Proteins (AFPs) to Control Penicillium Postharvest Fruit Decay. J Fungi (Basel) 2021; 7:449. [PMID: 34199956 PMCID: PMC8229795 DOI: 10.3390/jof7060449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2021] [Revised: 05/27/2021] [Accepted: 06/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Penicillium phytopathogenic species provoke severe postharvest disease and economic losses. Penicillium expansum is the main pome fruit phytopathogen while Penicillium digitatum and Penicillium italicum cause citrus green and blue mold, respectively. Control strategies rely on the use of synthetic fungicides, but the appearance of resistant strains and safety concerns have led to the search for new antifungals. Here, the potential application of different antifungal proteins (AFPs) including the three Penicillium chrysogenum proteins (PAF, PAFB and PAFC), as well as the Neosartorya fischeri NFAP2 protein to control Penicillium decay, has been evaluated. PAFB was the most potent AFP against P. digitatum, P. italicum and P. expansum, PAFC and NFAP2 showed moderate antifungal activity, whereas PAF was the least active protein. In fruit protection assays, PAFB provoked a reduction of the incidence of infections caused by P. digitatum and P. italicum in oranges and by P. expansum in apples. A combination of AFPs did not result in an increase in the efficacy of disease control. In conclusion, this study expands the antifungal inhibition spectrum of the AFPs evaluated, and demonstrates that AFPs act in a species-specific manner. PAFB is a promising alternative compound to control Penicillium postharvest fruit decay.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mónica Gandía
- Food Biotechnology Department, Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (IATA), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Catedrático Agustín Escardino Benlloch 7, 46980 Valencia, Spain; (M.G.); (M.G.-L.); (P.M.-C.); (J.F.M.)
- Departamento de Medicina Preventiva y Salud Pública, Ciencias de la Alimentación, Bromatología, Toxicología y Medicina Legal, Universitat de València, Vicente Andrès Estellès s/n, 46100 Valencia, Spain
| | - Anant Kakar
- Biocenter, Institute of Molecular Biology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innrain 80-82, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria; (A.K.); (J.H.); (F.M.)
| | - Moisés Giner-Llorca
- Food Biotechnology Department, Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (IATA), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Catedrático Agustín Escardino Benlloch 7, 46980 Valencia, Spain; (M.G.); (M.G.-L.); (P.M.-C.); (J.F.M.)
| | - Jeanett Holzknecht
- Biocenter, Institute of Molecular Biology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innrain 80-82, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria; (A.K.); (J.H.); (F.M.)
| | - Pedro Martínez-Culebras
- Food Biotechnology Department, Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (IATA), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Catedrático Agustín Escardino Benlloch 7, 46980 Valencia, Spain; (M.G.); (M.G.-L.); (P.M.-C.); (J.F.M.)
- Departamento de Medicina Preventiva y Salud Pública, Ciencias de la Alimentación, Bromatología, Toxicología y Medicina Legal, Universitat de València, Vicente Andrès Estellès s/n, 46100 Valencia, Spain
| | - László Galgóczy
- Institute of Plant Biology, Biological Research Centre, Eötvös Loránd Research Network, Temesvári krt. 62, 6726 Szeged, Hungary;
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, Közép fasor 52, 6726 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Florentine Marx
- Biocenter, Institute of Molecular Biology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innrain 80-82, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria; (A.K.); (J.H.); (F.M.)
| | - Jose F. Marcos
- Food Biotechnology Department, Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (IATA), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Catedrático Agustín Escardino Benlloch 7, 46980 Valencia, Spain; (M.G.); (M.G.-L.); (P.M.-C.); (J.F.M.)
| | - Paloma Manzanares
- Food Biotechnology Department, Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (IATA), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Catedrático Agustín Escardino Benlloch 7, 46980 Valencia, Spain; (M.G.); (M.G.-L.); (P.M.-C.); (J.F.M.)
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
|
15
|
Struyfs C, Cammue BPA, Thevissen K. Membrane-Interacting Antifungal Peptides. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:649875. [PMID: 33912564 PMCID: PMC8074791 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.649875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2021] [Accepted: 03/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The incidence of invasive fungal infections is increasing worldwide, resulting in more than 1.6 million deaths every year. Due to growing antifungal drug resistance and the limited number of currently used antimycotics, there is a clear need for novel antifungal strategies. In this context, great potential is attributed to antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) that are part of the innate immune system of organisms. These peptides are known for their broad-spectrum activity that can be directed toward bacteria, fungi, viruses, and/or even cancer cells. Some AMPs act via rapid physical disruption of microbial cell membranes at high concentrations causing cell leakage and cell death. However, more complex mechanisms are also observed, such as interaction with specific lipids, production of reactive oxygen species, programmed cell death, and autophagy. This review summarizes the structure and mode of action of antifungal AMPs, thereby focusing on their interaction with fungal membranes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Struyfs
- Centre of Microbial and Plant Genetics, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Bruno P A Cammue
- Centre of Microbial and Plant Genetics, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Karin Thevissen
- Centre of Microbial and Plant Genetics, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Zhao Z, Cai F, Gao R, Ding M, Jiang S, Chen P, Pang G, Chenthamara K, Shen Q, Bayram Akcapinar G, Druzhinina IS. At least three families of hyphosphere small secreted cysteine-rich proteins can optimize surface properties to a moderately hydrophilic state suitable for fungal attachment. Environ Microbiol 2021; 23:5750-5768. [PMID: 33538393 PMCID: PMC8596622 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.15413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2020] [Revised: 01/25/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The secretomes of filamentous fungi contain a diversity of small secreted cysteine‐rich proteins (SSCPs) that have a variety of properties ranging from toxicity to surface activity. Some SSCPs are recognized by other organisms as indicators of fungal presence, but their function in fungi is not fully understood. We detected a new family of fungal surface‐active SSCPs (saSSCPs), here named hyphosphere proteins (HFSs). An evolutionary analysis of the HFSs in Pezizomycotina revealed a unique pattern of eight single cysteine residues (C‐CXXXC‐C‐C‐C‐C‐C) and a long evolutionary history of multiple gene duplications and ancient interfungal lateral gene transfers, suggesting their functional significance for fungi with different lifestyles. Interestingly, recombinantly produced saSSCPs from three families (HFSs, hydrophobins and cerato‐platanins) showed convergent surface‐modulating activity on glass and on poly(ethylene‐terephthalate), transforming their surfaces to a moderately hydrophilic state, which significantly favoured subsequent hyphal attachment. The addition of purified saSSCPs to the tomato rhizosphere had mixed effects on hyphal attachment to roots, while all tested saSSCPs had an adverse effect on plant growth in vitro. We propose that the exceptionally high diversity of saSSCPs in Trichoderma and other fungi evolved to efficiently condition various surfaces in the hyphosphere to a fungal‐beneficial state.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zheng Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Plant Immunity, Jiangsu Provincial Key Lab of Solid Organic Waste Utilization, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China.,Fungal Genomics Laboratory (FungiG), Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Feng Cai
- Key Laboratory of Plant Immunity, Jiangsu Provincial Key Lab of Solid Organic Waste Utilization, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China.,Fungal Genomics Laboratory (FungiG), Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China.,Institute of Chemical, Environmental and Bioscience Engineering (ICEBE), TU Wien, Vienna, Austria
| | - Renwei Gao
- Key Laboratory of Plant Immunity, Jiangsu Provincial Key Lab of Solid Organic Waste Utilization, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China.,Fungal Genomics Laboratory (FungiG), Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Mingyue Ding
- Key Laboratory of Plant Immunity, Jiangsu Provincial Key Lab of Solid Organic Waste Utilization, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China.,Fungal Genomics Laboratory (FungiG), Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Siqi Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Plant Immunity, Jiangsu Provincial Key Lab of Solid Organic Waste Utilization, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China.,Fungal Genomics Laboratory (FungiG), Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Peijie Chen
- Key Laboratory of Plant Immunity, Jiangsu Provincial Key Lab of Solid Organic Waste Utilization, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China.,Fungal Genomics Laboratory (FungiG), Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Guan Pang
- Key Laboratory of Plant Immunity, Jiangsu Provincial Key Lab of Solid Organic Waste Utilization, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China.,Fungal Genomics Laboratory (FungiG), Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Komal Chenthamara
- Institute of Chemical, Environmental and Bioscience Engineering (ICEBE), TU Wien, Vienna, Austria
| | - Qirong Shen
- Key Laboratory of Plant Immunity, Jiangsu Provincial Key Lab of Solid Organic Waste Utilization, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Günseli Bayram Akcapinar
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Institute of Health Sciences, Acibadem Mehmet Ali Aydinlar University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Irina S Druzhinina
- Key Laboratory of Plant Immunity, Jiangsu Provincial Key Lab of Solid Organic Waste Utilization, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China.,Fungal Genomics Laboratory (FungiG), Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China.,Institute of Chemical, Environmental and Bioscience Engineering (ICEBE), TU Wien, Vienna, Austria
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Czajlik A, Holzknecht J, Galgóczy L, Tóth L, Poór P, Ördög A, Váradi G, Kühbacher A, Borics A, Tóth GK, Marx F, Batta G. Solution Structure, Dynamics, and New Antifungal Aspects of the Cysteine-Rich Miniprotein PAFC. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:1183. [PMID: 33504082 PMCID: PMC7865535 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22031183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2020] [Revised: 01/18/2021] [Accepted: 01/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The genome of Penicillium chrysogenum Q176 contains a gene coding for the 88-amino-acid (aa)-long glycine- and cysteine-rich P. chrysogenum antifungal protein C (PAFC). After maturation, the secreted antifungal miniprotein (MP) comprises 64 aa and shares 80% aa identity with the bubble protein (BP) from Penicillium brevicompactum, which has a published X-ray structure. Our team expressed isotope (15N, 13C)-labeled, recombinant PAFC in high yields, which allowed us to determine the solution structure and molecular dynamics by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) experiments. The primary structure of PAFC is dominated by 14 glycines, and therefore, whether the four disulfide bonds can stabilize the fold is challenging. Indeed, unlike the few published solution structures of other antifungal MPs from filamentous ascomycetes, the NMR data indicate that PAFC has shorter secondary structure elements and lacks the typical β-barrel structure, though it has a positively charged cavity and a hydrophobic core around the disulfide bonds. Some parts within the two putative γ-core motifs exhibited enhanced dynamics according to a new disorder index presentation of 15N-NMR relaxation data. Furthermore, we also provided a more detailed insight into the antifungal spectrum of PAFC, with specific emphasis on fungal plant pathogens. Our results suggest that PAFC could be an effective candidate for the development of new antifungal strategies in agriculture.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- András Czajlik
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Debrecen, H-4032 Debrecen, Hungary;
| | - Jeanett Holzknecht
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Biocenter, Medical University of Innsbruck, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria; (J.H.); (A.K.)
| | - László Galgóczy
- Institute of Plant Biology, Biological Research Centre, Eötvös Loránd Research Network, H-6726 Szeged, Hungary; (L.G.); (L.T.)
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, H-6726 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Liliána Tóth
- Institute of Plant Biology, Biological Research Centre, Eötvös Loránd Research Network, H-6726 Szeged, Hungary; (L.G.); (L.T.)
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, H-6726 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Péter Poór
- Department of Plant Biology, Faculty of Sciences and Informatics, University of Szeged, H-6726 Szeged, Hungary; (P.P.); (A.Ö.)
| | - Attila Ördög
- Department of Plant Biology, Faculty of Sciences and Informatics, University of Szeged, H-6726 Szeged, Hungary; (P.P.); (A.Ö.)
| | - Györgyi Váradi
- Department of Medical Chemistry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, H-6720 Szeged, Hungary; (G.V.); (G.K.T.)
| | - Alexander Kühbacher
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Biocenter, Medical University of Innsbruck, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria; (J.H.); (A.K.)
| | - Attila Borics
- Institute of Biochemistry, Biological Research Centre, Eötvös Loránd Research Network, H-6726 Szeged, Hungary;
| | - Gábor K. Tóth
- Department of Medical Chemistry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, H-6720 Szeged, Hungary; (G.V.); (G.K.T.)
- MTA-SZTE Biomimetic Systems Research Group, University of Szeged, Dóm tér 8, H-6720 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Florentine Marx
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Biocenter, Medical University of Innsbruck, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria; (J.H.); (A.K.)
| | - Gyula Batta
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Debrecen, H-4032 Debrecen, Hungary;
| |
Collapse
|