A Metal-Containing NP Approach to Treat Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA): Prospects and Challenges

Biopolymer Drug Delivery Systems for Oromucosal Application: Recent Trends in Pharmaceutical R&D

Oromucosal drug delivery, both local and transmucosal (buccal), is an effective alternative to traditional oral and parenteral dosage forms because it increases drug bioavailability and reduces systemic drug toxicity. The oral mucosa has a good blood supply, which ensures that drug molecules enter the systemic circulation directly, avoiding drug metabolism during the first passage through the liver. At the same time, the mucosa has a number of barriers, including mucus, epithelium, enzymes, and immunocompetent cells, that are designed to prevent the entry of foreign substances into the body, which also complicates the absorption of drugs. The development of oromucosal drug delivery systems based on mucoadhesive biopolymers and their derivatives (especially thiolated and catecholated derivatives) is a promising strategy for the pharmaceutical development of safe and effective dosage forms. Solid, semi-solid and liquid pharmaceutical formulations based on biopolymers have several advantageous properties, such as prolonged residence time on the mucosa due to high mucoadhesion, unidirectional and modified drug release capabilities, and enhanced drug permeability. Biopolymers are non-toxic, biocompatible, biodegradable and may possess intrinsic bioactivity. A rational approach to the design of oromucosal delivery systems requires an understanding of both the anatomy/physiology of the oral mucosa and the physicochemical and biopharmaceutical properties of the drug molecule/biopolymer, as presented in this review. This review summarizes the advances in the pharmaceutical development of mucoadhesive oromucosal dosage forms (e.g., patches, buccal tablets, and hydrogel systems), including nanotechnology-based biopolymer nanoparticle delivery systems (e.g., solid lipid particles, liposomes, biopolymer polyelectrolyte particles, hybrid nanoparticles, etc.).

Emerging strategies and therapeutic innovations for combating drug resistance in Staphylococcus aureus strains: A comprehensive review

In recent years, antibiotic therapy has encountered significant challenges due to the rapid emergence of multidrug resistance among bacteria responsible for life-threatening illnesses, creating uncertainty about the future management of infectious diseases. The escalation of antimicrobial resistance in the post-COVID era compared to the pre-COVID era has raised global concern. The prevalence of nosocomial-related infections, especially outbreaks of drug-resistant strains of Staphylococcus aureus, have been reported worldwide, with India being a notable hotspot for such occurrences. Various virulence factors and mutations characterize nosocomial infections involving S. aureus. The lack of proper alternative treatments leading to increased drug resistance emphasizes the need to investigate and examine recent research to combat future pandemics. In the current genomics era, the application of advanced technologies such as next-generation sequencing (NGS), machine learning (ML), and quantum computing (QC) for genomic analysis and resistance prediction has significantly increased the pace of diagnosing drug-resistant pathogens and insights into genetic intricacies. Despite prompt diagnosis, the elimination of drug-resistant infections remains unattainable in the absence of effective alternative therapies. Researchers are exploring various alternative therapeutic approaches, including phage therapy, antimicrobial peptides, photodynamic therapy, vaccines, host-directed therapies, and more. The proposed review mainly focuses on the resistance journey of S. aureus over the past decade, detailing its resistance mechanisms, prevalence in the subcontinent, innovations in rapid diagnosis of the drug-resistant strains, including the applicants of NGS and ML application along with QC, it helps to design alternative novel therapeutics approaches against S. aureus infection.

Preparation and characterization of spiked gold nanobipyramids and its antibacterial effect on methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus

BACKGROUND

This paper reports the preparation of a new family of spiked gold nanoparticles, spiked gold nanobipyramids (SNBPs). This protocol includes the process to synthesize gold nanobipyramids (NBPs) using combined seed-mediated and microwave-assisted method and procedure to form spikes on whole surface of gold nanobipyramid. We also evaluated the antibacterial activity against both methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA) in various concentrations of SNBPs and NBPs by well diffusion assay, minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) determination. The effect of SNBPs on exposed bacteria was observed by scanning electron microscopy.

RESULTS

The UV-Vis of purified NBPs exhibited two absorption bands located at 550 nm and 849 nm with yield of bipyramidal particles more than 90%. The average size of NBPs was 76.33 ± 10.11 nm in length and 26.57 ± 2.25 nm in diameter, respectively, while SNBPs were prolongated in length and achieved 182.37 ± 21.74 nm with multi-branches protruding whole surface areas. In antibacterial evaluations, SNBPs and NBPs showed antibacterial activity with MIC of 6.25 μl/ml and 12.5 μl/ml, respectively, for MSSA while 12.5 μl/ml and 25 μl/ml, respectively, for MRSA. Besides, MBC values of SNBPs and NBPs were found to be 12.5 μl/ml and 25 μl/ml, respectively, against MSSA while 25 μl/ml and 50 μl/ml, respectively, against MRSA. Furthermore, scanning electron microscopy observation showed the mechanism that SNBPs damaged the outer membrane, released cytoplasm, and altered the normal morphology of MRSA and MSSA, leading to bacterial death.

CONCLUSIONS

This report suggests that these SNBPs are potential antibacterial agents that can be applied as antibacterial materials to inhibit the growth of human bacterial pathogen infections related to antibiotic-resistant bacteria.

Fighting Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus with Targeted Nanoparticles

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is considered one of the greatest threats to global health. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) remains at the core of this threat, accounting for about 90% of S. aureus infections widespread in the community and hospital settings. In recent years, the use of nanoparticles (NPs) has emerged as a promising strategy to treat MRSA infections. NPs can act directly as antibacterial agents via antibiotic-independent activity and/or serve as drug delivery systems (DDSs), releasing loaded antibiotics. Nonetheless, directing NPs to the infection site is fundamental for effective MRSA treatment so that highly concentrated therapeutic agents are delivered to the infection site while directly reducing the toxicity to healthy human cells. This leads to decreased AMR emergence and less disturbance of the individual's healthy microbiota. Hence, this review compiles and discusses the scientific evidence related to targeted NPs developed for MRSA treatment.

Nickel Nanoparticles: Applications and Antimicrobial Role against Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Infections

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has evolved vast antibiotic resistance. These strains contain numerous virulence factors facilitating the development of severe infections. Considering the costs, side effects, and time duration needed for the synthesis of novel drugs, seeking efficient alternative approaches for the eradication of drug-resistant bacterial agents seems to be an unmet requirement. Nickel nanoparticles (NiNPs) have been applied as prognostic and therapeutic cheap agents to various aspects of biomedical sciences. Their antibacterial effects are exerted via the disruption of the cell membrane, the deformation of proteins, and the inhibition of DNA replication. NiNPs proper traits include high-level chemical stability and binding affinity, ferromagnetic properties, ecofriendliness, and cost-effectiveness. They have outlined pleomorphic and cubic structures. The combined application of NiNPs with CuO, ZnO, and CdO has enhanced their anti-MRSA effects. The NiNPs at an approximate size of around 50 nm have exerted efficient anti-MRSA effects, particularly at higher concentrations. NiNPs have conferred higher antibacterial effects against MRSA than other nosocomial bacterial pathogens. The application of green synthesis and low-cost materials such as albumin and chitosan enhance the efficacy of NPs for therapeutic purposes.