Experimental Design Based Optimization and Ex Vivo Permeation of Desmopressin Acetate Loaded Elastic Liposomes Using Rat Skin

Application of quality by design in optimization of nanoformulations: Principle, perspectives and practices

Nanoparticulate drug delivery systems (NDDS) based nanoformulations have emerged as promising drug delivery systems. Various NDDS-based formulations have been reported such as polymeric nanoparticles (NPs), nanoliposomes, solid lipid NPs, nanocapsules, liposomes, self-nano emulsifying drug delivery systems, pro liposomes, nanospheres, microemulsion, nanoemulsion, gold NPs, silver NPs and nanostructured lipid carrier. They have shown numerous advantages such as enhanced bioavailability, aqueous solubility, permeability, controlled release profile, and blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability. This advantage of NDDS can help to deliver pure drugs to the target site. However, the formulation of nanoparticles is a complex process that requires optimization to ensure product quality and efficacy. Quality by Design (QbD) is a systemic approach that has been implemented in the pharmaceutical industry to improve the quality and reliability of drug products. QbD involves the optimization of different parameters like zeta potential (ZP), particle size (PS), entrapment efficiency (EE), polydispersity index (PDI), and drug release using statistical experimental design. The present article discussed the detailed role of QbD in optimizing nanoformulations and their advantages, advancement, and applications from the industrial perspective. Various case studies of QbD in the optimization of nanoformulations are also discussed.

Mechanistic insights of desmopressin loaded elastic liposomes for transdermal delivery: HSPiP predictive parameters and instrumental based evidences

Desmopressin acetate (DA) is a first-line option for the treatment of hemophilia A, von Willebrand's disease, nocturnal enuresis, central diabetes insipidus, and various traumatic injuries. We extended previously reported desmopressin-loaded elastic liposomes (ODEL1) to investigate mechanistic insights into ODEL1 mediated augmented permeation across rat skin. HSPiP software and instrumental techniques such as differential scanning calorimeter (DSC), Fourier Transform infrared (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and fluorescent microscopy provided better understandings of permeation behavior. HSPiP was used to compare Hansen solubility parameter (HSP) of ODEL1, DA, components, and rat skins (control and treated) in terms of dispersion forces (δd), polar forces (δp), and hydrogen bonding (δh). FTIR, DSC, fluorescence microscopy, and SEM provided a detailed mechanistic understanding of the changes occurred after treatment. The values of δd, δp, and δH for DA were 20.6, 31.9, and 18.2 MPa1/2, respectively, whereas these were 15.6, 14.97, and 2.4 MPa1/2 for ODEL1, respectively, suggesting remarkable permeation of DA by changing innate cohesive energies of the skin. DA primarily interacts through δd and δp with the ODEL1 and the skin. Furthermore, the stretching and bending vibrations (molecular interactions) of the treated skins were quite diverse as compared to the untreated skin. ODEL1 caused a substantial thermal changes (shifted 67 to 65 °C, and 79 to 82.5 °C) for the surface protein and glycoprotein as compared to the untreated skin. Fluorescence and SEM confirmed relatively intense surface perturbation of the treated skin as compared to the control. Thus, ODEL1 was efficient in interacting with the skin surface for reversible changes and subsequently resulted in high permeation and drug deposition.

Development of gallic acid loaded composite nanovesicles for the topical treatment of acne: optimization, characterization, and clinical investigation

Gallic acid (GA) proved to produce desired effects topically in the treatment of acne, through its antibacterial, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant characteristics. In the current work, nanovesicular systems; aspasomes loaded with GA were prepared, and evaluated on in-vitro and ex-vivo levels. Formulations were coated with chitosan due to its mucoadhesive properties. Results indicated that the size of the formulations ranged between 273.20 and 855.00 nm, with positively charged zeta potential ranging between 30.60 and 34.40 mV, EE% ranging between 57.651% and 95.20% and good stability after 3-months storage. The formulae provided a sustained drug release of 98.22% over 24 h, 5.4-fold higher ex-vivo skin deposition compared to GA solution, and powerful antioxidant potential compared to the control solution and appeared as spherical bilayer vesicles on being examined using transmission electron microscope. A clinical study was carried out on patients suffering from acne, where the reduction percent of comedones, inflammatory, total acne lesions and infiltrate was calculated. Results revealed that aspasomes exhibited reduction percentages of 72.35%, 80.33%, 77.95% and 90.01% ± for comedones, inflammatory lesions, total lesions, and infiltrate, respectively compared to control solution providing an effective topical delivery system for the management of acne.

Preparation of Ultra-Small Copper Nanoparticles-Loaded Self-Healing Hydrogels with Antibacterial, Inflammation-Suppressing and Angiogenesis-Enhancing Properties for Promoting Diabetic Wound Healing

Background

Bacterial invasion, protracted inflammation, and angiogenesis inhibition are hallmarks of chronic diabetic wounds, bringing about patient morbidity and rising healthcare costs. For such wounds, there are currently few efficient therapies available.

Methods

We reported the development of carboxymethyl chitosan (CMCS)-based self-healing hydrogel loaded with ultra-small copper nanoparticles (Cunps) for local treatment of diabetic wound healing. The structure of Cunps was identified by XRD, TEM, XPS and other methods, and the characterization of the synthesized Cunps-loaded self-healing carboxymethyl chitosan (CMCS)-protocatechualdehyde (PCA) hydrogel (Cunps@CMCS-PCA hydrogel) was further investigated. The therapeutic effect of Cunps@CMCS-PCA hydrogel in diabetic wound healing was explored in vitro and in vivo.

Results

The findings showed that a kind of ultra-small size copper nanoparticles with excellent biocompatibility was prepared. CMCS was chemically conjugated to PCA to form self-healing hydrogels via the formation of an amide bond followed by the loading of ultra-small copper nanoparticles. The obtained Cunps@CMCS-PCA hydrogel showed a typical three-dimensional interlinked network structure with self-healing ability and porosity. It exhibited good biocompatibility in diabetic wounds. Furthermore, Cunps@CMCS-PCA hydrogel group significantly prevented bacterial growth in the skin wound of diabetic rats as compared to model group and CMCS-PCA hydrogel-treated group. After 3 days, no visible bacterial proliferation was observed. It also increased angiogenesis through Cunps mediated activation of ATP7A to prevent induction of autophagy. Furthermore, Cunps@CMCS-PCA hydrogel mainly depended on PCA-induced inhibition on inflammation of macrophage via JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway. As a result, compared with delayed wound healing process with lower wound healing rate valued at 68.6% within 7 days in the model group, Cunps@CMCS-PCA significantly accelerated wound healing recovery and increased wound healing rate to 86.5%, suggesting that Cunps@CMCS-PCA hydrogel effectively accelerated wound healing.

Conclusion

Cunps@CMCS-PCA hydrogel offered a new therapeutic approach for quickening diabetic wound healing.

Therapy of Organophosphate Poisoning via Intranasal Administration of 2-PAM-Loaded Chitosomes

Chitosan-decorated liposomes were proposed for the first time for the intranasal delivery of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) reactivator pralidoxime chloride (2-PAM) to the brain as a therapy for organophosphorus compounds (OPs) poisoning. Firstly, the chitosome composition based on phospholipids, cholesterol, chitosans (Cs) of different molecular weights, and its arginine derivative was developed and optimized. The use of the polymer modification led to an increase in the encapsulation efficiency toward rhodamine B (RhB; ~85%) and 2-PAM (~60%) by 20% compared to conventional liposomes. The formation of monodispersed and stable nanosized particles with a hydrodynamic diameter of up to 130 nm was shown using dynamic light scattering. The addition of the polymers recharged the liposome surface (from -15 mV to +20 mV), which demonstrates the successful deposition of Cs on the vesicles. In vitro spectrophotometric analysis showed a slow release of substrates (RhB and 2-PAM) from the nanocontainers, while the concentration and Cs type did not significantly affect the chitosome permeability. Flow cytometry and fluorescence microscopy qualitatively and quantitatively demonstrated the penetration of the developed chitosomes into normal Chang liver and M-HeLa cervical cancer cells. At the final stage, the ability of the formulated 2-PAM to reactivate brain AChE was assessed in a model of paraoxon-induced poisoning in an in vivo test. Intranasal administration of 2-PAM-containing chitosomes allows it to reach the degree of enzyme reactivation up to 35 ± 4%.

Oxime Therapy for Brain AChE Reactivation and Neuroprotection after Organophosphate Poisoning

One of the main problems in the treatment of poisoning with organophosphorus (OPs) inhibitors of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) is low ability of existing reactivators of AChE that are used as antidotes to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB). In this work, modified cationic liposomes were developed that can penetrate through the BBB and deliver the reactivator of AChE pralidoxime chloride (2-PAM) into the brain. Liposomes were obtained on the basis of phosphatidylcholine and imidazolium surfactants. To obtain the composition optimized in terms of charge, stability, and toxicity, the molar ratio of surfactant/lipid was varied. For the systems, physicochemical parameters, release profiles of the substrates (rhodamine B, 2-PAM), hemolytic activity and ability to cause hemagglutination were evaluated. Screening of liposome penetration through the BBB, analysis of 2-PAM pharmacokinetics, and in vivo AChE reactivation showed that modified liposomes readily pass into the brain and reactivate brain AChE in rats poisoned with paraoxon (POX) by 25%. For the first time, an assessment was made of the ability of imidazolium liposomes loaded with 2-PAM to reduce the death of neurons in the brains of mice. It was shown that intravenous administration of liposomal 2-PAM can significantly reduce POX-induced neuronal death in the hippocampus.

Rethinking Breast Cancer Chemoprevention: Technological Advantages and Enhanced Performance of a Nanoethosomal-Based Hydrogel for Topical Administration of Fenretinide

Herein, we developed an ethosomal hydrogel based on three types of ethosomes: simple, mixed (surfactant-based micelles and lipid vesicles) or binary (comprising two type of alcohols). Ethanol injection was employed for vesicles preparation, and sodium alginate, as gelling agent. We purposed the local-transdermal administration of the off-the-shelf retinoid fenretinide (FENR) for chemoprevention of breast cancer. Rheograms and flow index values for alginate dispersion (without ethosomes) and hydrogels containing simple, mixed or binary ethosomes suggested pseudoplastic behavior. An increase in the apparent viscosity was observed upon ethosome incorporation. The ethosomal hydrogel displayed increased bioadhesion compared to the alginate dispersion, suggesting that the lipid vesicles contribute to the gelling and bioadhesion processes. In the Hen's Egg Test-Chorioallantoic Membrane model, few spots of lysis and hemorrhage were observed for formulations containing simple (score of 2) and mixed vesicles (score 4), but not for the hydrogel based on the binary system, indicating its lower irritation potential. The binary ethosomal hydrogel provided a slower FENR in vitro release and delivered 2.6-fold less drug into viable skin layers compared to the ethosome dispersion, supporting the ability of the gel matrix to slow down drug release. The ethosomal hydrogel decreased by ~ five-fold the IC₅₀ values of FENR in MCF-7 cells. In conclusion, binary ethosomal gels presented technological advantages, provided sustained drug release and skin penetration, and did not preclude drug cytotoxic effects, supporting their potential applicability as topical chemopreventive systems.

Hybrid chitosan-lipid nanoparticles of green tea extract as natural anti-cellulite agent with superior in vivo potency: full synthesis and analysis

The aim of this work is to exploit the advantages of chitosan (CS) as a nanocarrier for delivery of anti-cellulite drug, green tea extract (GTE), into subcutaneous adipose tissue. Primarily, analysis of herbal extract was conducted via newly developed and validated UPLC method. Ionic gelation method was adopted in the preparation of nanoparticles where the effect lecithin was investigated resulting in the formation of hybrid lipid-chitosan nanoparticles. Optimal formula showed a particle size of 292.6 ± 8.98 nm, polydispersity index of 0.253 ± 0.02, zeta potential of 41.03 ± 0.503 mV and an entrapment efficiency percent of 68.4 ± 1.88%. Successful interaction between CS, sodium tripolyphosphate (TPP) and lecithin was confirmed by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry and X-ray diffraction. Morphological examination was done using transmission electron microscope and scanning electron microscope confirmed spherical uniform nature of GTE load CS-TPP nanoparticles. Ex vivo permeation study revealed permeability enhancing activity of the selected optimal formula due to higher GTE deposition in skin in comparison to GTE solution. Moreover in vivo study done on female albino Wistar rats carried out for 21 days proved successful potential anti-cellulite activity upon its application on rats’ skin. Histological examination showed significant reduction of adipocyte perimeter and area and fat layer thickness. Results of the current study demonstrated that the developed GTE-loaded CS-TPP nanoparticle comprised of chitosan and lecithin showed permeability enhancing activity along with the proven lipolytic effect of green tea represent a promising delivery system for anti-cellulite activity.