Population Pharmacokinetics of Levetiracetam and Dosing Evaluation in Critically Ill Patients with Normal or Augmented Renal Function

Levetiracetam pharmacokinetics in venovenous extracorporeal membrane oxygenation: A case report

This case report describes the pharmacokinetics of levetiracetam in a critically ill patient supported on venovenous membrane oxygenation. While levetiracetam has emerged as a first line option to treat seizures in critically ill patients, there is limited information available regarding the impact of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation on the pharmacokinetics of this medication. This report contributes to the limited body of literature describing the pharmacokinetics of medications in extracorporeal membrane oxygenation.

Effects of levetiracetam an antiepileptic drug on the multi-biological parameters in African catfish Clarias gariepinus (Burchell, 1822)

This study investigated the impact of levetiracetam on the multi-biological parameters in juvenile Clarias gariepinus. Fish were exposed to 0.2, 0.6, and 0.8 mg/L of levetiracetam and filtered dechlorinated water (control) for 10 days, followed by a recovery period of 5 days. Blood samples were collected periodically for haematological and serum biochemical profiling, and the fish were sacrificed for the liver and brain tissues' analysis. Skin colouration, mucus secretion, and air-gulping increased with concentration and duration of exposure, while swimming rate and opercula movement decreased. A significant (p < 0.05) dose- and duration-dependent decrease was recorded in the red blood cells, packed cell volume, haemoglobin, and white blood cell counts, while the opposite was recorded in the mean corpuscular haemoglobin, volume, and haemoglobin concentrations. Compared to the control, there were no significant differences in the values of the differential leukocyte counts, except for lymphocytes, which were significantly (p < 0.05) lower in the highest concentration at the end of the exposure period. Aspartate and alanine aminotransferase and alkaline phosphatase activities increased significantly (p < 0.05), while the values for protein and glucose were reduced compared to the control. The oxidative stress biomarkers, liver catalase, superoxide dismutase, and glutathione peroxidase activities decreased significantly (p < 0.05), while malondialdehyde and acetylcholinesterase activities increased significantly (p < 0.05) compared to the control. The activities were duration- and concentration-dependent. No significant difference in the correction factor, while the hepatosomatic index decreased significantly (p < 0.05) compared to the control. The parameters returned to normal after post 5-day withdrawal of levetiracetam administration. The study indicated that levetiracetam is toxic to fish.

The Impact of Augmented Renal Clearance on the Pharmacokinetics of Levetiracetam in Critically Ill Patients: A Literature Review

Levetiracetam is an antiseizure medication (ASM) that has several advantages over other ASMs, such as dose-proportional pharmacokinetics, high bioavailability, and minimal drug interactions. The drug is primarily eliminated through the kidneys. Therefore, dose adjustments are necessary in patients with renal impairment or patients experiencing augmented renal clearance (ARC) to maintain optimal efficacy and safety. The objective of this review was to explore the existing literature on the influence of ARC on the pharmacokinetics of levetiracetam in critically ill patients. Database searched included MEDLINE, Embase, Scopus, Cochrane Library, and CINAHL. Thirteen articles were included. The prevalence of ARC ranged from 30% to 90%. All studies demonstrated the inadequacy of the levetiracetam starting dose of 500 mg twice daily (BID) in critically ill patients. Studies consistently reported altered pharmacokinetics of levetiracetam in patients with ARC, showing an elevated clearance that can reach up to 6.5L/h (∼3.8 L/h in healthy individuals). Additionally, patients with ARC had a lower area under the concentration-time curve, shorter half-life, and lower trough concentrations than those without ARC. Dosing simulations indicated that the use of at least 1500 mg BID is recommended for ARC patients to achieve similar exposures to those with no ARC on the 1000 mg BID starting dose. In conclusion, ARC significantly enhances the renal elimination of levetiracetam, elevating the risk of sub-therapeutic drug levels and treatment failure. An initial dosage regimen of 1500 mg BID would be recommended for patients exhibiting ARC. Therefore, careful monitoring of creatinine clearance and dosing optimization for patients experiencing ARC is essential.

Enhanced renal clearance impacts levetiracetam concentrations in patients with traumatic brain injury with and without augmented renal clearance

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of ARC on levetiracetam concentrations during the first week following acute TBI. The hypothesis was levetiracetam concentrations are significantly lower in TBI patients with augmented renal clearance (ARC) compared to those with normal renal clearance.

METHODS

This is a prospective cohort pharmacokinetic study of adults with moderate to severe TBI treated with levetiracetam during the first week after injury. Serial blood collections were performed daily for analysis of levetiracetam, cystatin C, and 12-hr creatinine clearance (CrCl) determinations. Patients were divided into two cohorts: with (CrCl ≥130 ml/min/1.73 m2) and without ARC.

RESULTS

Twenty-two patients with moderate to severe TBI were included. The population consisted primarily of young male patients with severe TBI (mean age 40 years old, 68% male, median admission GCS 4). Each received levetiracetam 1000 mg IV every 12 h for the study period. ARC was present in 77.3% of patients, with significantly lower levetiracetam concentrations in ARC patients and below the conservative therapeutic range (< 6mcg/mL) for all study days. In patients without ARC, the serum concentrations were also below the expected range on all but two study days (Days 4 and 5). Four of the 22 (18.2%) patients exhibited seizure activity during the study period (two of these patients exhibited ARC). Cystatin C concentrations were significantly lower in patients with ARC, though the mean for all patients was within the typical normal range.

CONCLUSIONS

ARC has a high prevalence in patients with moderate to severe TBI. Levetiracetam concentrations after standard dosing were low in all TBI patients, but significantly lower in patients with ARC. This study highlights the need to consider personalized drug dosing in TBI patients irrespective of the presence of ARC.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

This study was registered at cliicaltrials.gov (NCT02437838) Registered on 08/05/2015, https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02437838 .

Optimal Dosing of Levetiracetam for Seizure Prophylaxis in Critically Ill Patients: A Prospective Observational Study

OBJECTIVES

Critically ill patients eliminate levetiracetam (LEV) more rapidly than healthy controls, yet low doses are commonly used for seizure prophylaxis in the ICU setting. We compared the rates of achievement of target serum levels and new onset seizure (clinical and/or electrographic) among patients who received low (500 mg bid) versus high (750-1,000 mg bid) dose LEV.

DESIGN

Prospective, observational study.

SETTING

Tertiary care, academic center.

PATIENTS

We included patients who received prophylactic LEV following traumatic brain injury, intracerebral hemorrhage, spontaneous subarachnoid hemorrhage, or supratentorial neurosurgery between 2019 and 2021. Patients with a history of seizure, antiseizure medication use, or renal failure requiring dialysis were excluded.

INTERVENTIONS

None.

MEASUREMENTS

LEV levels were obtained at steady state. The impact of low-dose versus high-dose LEV on the primary outcome of target LEV levels (12-46 μg/mL), and the secondary outcome of clinical and/or electrographic seizure, were assessed using multivariable logistic regression analyses adjusting for age, LEV loading dose, BMI, primary diagnosis and creatinine clearance (CrCl).

MAIN RESULTS

Of the 205 subjects included in analyses, n = 106 (52%) received LEV 500 mg bid (median 13 mg/kg/d), and n = 99 (48%) received LEV 750-1,000 mg bid (median 25 mg/kg/d). Overall, 111 of 205 patients (54%) achieved target levels: 48 (45%) from the low-dose group versus 63 (64%) from the high-dose group (odds ratio [OR] 2.1; 95% CI, 1.1-3.7; p = 0.009). In multivariable analyses, high-dose LEV predicted target levels (adjusted OR [aOR] 2.23; 95% CI, 1.16-4.27; p = 0.016), and was associated with lower seizure odds (aOR 0.32; 95% CI, 0.13-0.82; p = 0.018) after adjusting for age, loading dose, BMI, diagnosis, and CrCl.

CONCLUSIONS

Underdosing of LEV was common, with only 54% of patients achieving target serum levels. Higher doses (750-1,000 mg bid) were more than twice as likely to lead to optimal drug levels and reduced the odds of seizure by 68% compared with low-dose regimens (500 mg bid).

Personalized antiseizure medication therapy in critically ill adult patients

Precision medicine has the potential to have a significant impact on both drug development and patient care. It is crucial to not only provide prompt effective antiseizure treatment for critically ill patients after seizures start but also have a proactive mindset and concentrate on epileptogenesis and the underlying cause of the seizures or seizure disorders. Critical illness presents different treatment issues compared with the ambulatory population, which makes it challenging to choose the best antiseizure medications and to administer them at the right time and at the right dose. Since there is a paucity of information available on antiseizure medication dosing in critically ill patients, therapeutic drug monitoring is a useful tool for defining each patient's personal therapeutic range and assisting clinicians in decision-making. Use of pharmacogenomic information relating to pharmacokinetics, hepatic metabolism, and seizure etiology may improve safety and efficacy by individualizing therapy. Studies evaluating the clinical implementation of pharmacogenomic information at the point-of-care and identification of biomarkers are also needed. These studies may make it possible to avoid adverse drug reactions, maximize drug efficacy, reduce drug-drug interactions, and optimize medications for each individual patient. This review will discuss the available literature and provide future insights on precision medicine use with antiseizure therapy in critically ill adult patients.

Model-Informed Precision Dosing (MIPD)

Model-informed precision dosing (MIPD) is an advanced quantitative approach focusing on individualized dosage optimization, integrating complex mathematical and statistical models of drugs and disease combined with individual demographic and clinical patient characteristics [...].

Pharmacokinetic considerations surrounding the use of levetiracetam for seizure prophylaxis in neurocritical care - an overview

INTRODUCTION

Levetiracetam (LEV) is one of the most widely used anti-seizure medications (ASMs) in clinical practice. This is due both to a different mechanism of action when compared to other ASMs and its easy handling. Indeed, because of its interesting pharmacokinetic properties, it is often used outside of the labeled indications, notably in the neurocritical setting as prophylaxis of epileptic seizures.

AREAS COVERED

A literature search was conducted and the most relevant studies on the pharmacokinetic properties of LEV were selected by two independent investigators. Current evidence on the use of ASM prophylaxis in the neurocritical setting was also reviewed, highlighting and discussing the strengths and limits of LEV as drug of choice for anti-epileptic prophylaxis in this scenario.

EXPERT OPINION

LEV has a 'near-ideal' pharmacokinetic profile, which makes it an attractive drug for ASM prophylaxis in neurocritical care. However, current recommendations restrict ASMs prophylaxis to very selected circumstances and the role of LEV is marginal. Moreover, studies are generally designed to compare LEV versus phenytoin, whereas studies comparing LEV versus placebo are lacking. Further, randomized trials will be needed to better elucidate LEV utility and its neuroprotective role in the neurocritical setting.

Drug Dosing in Critically Ill Adult Patients with Augmented Renal Clearance

Augmented renal clearance (ARC) is a phenomenon of enhanced renal function seen in critically ill patients. ARC alters the disposition of renally eliminated medications currently used in the intensive care unit, resulting in underdosing and potential therapy failure. Our review addresses the rising concern of inadequate dosing in patients with ARC by summarizing the currently available evidence. To our knowledge, this guide is the first to provide clinicians with dose recommendation insights for renally eliminated agents in adult critically ill patients with ARC. A comprehensive literature search using MEDLINE, Embase, Cochrane Library, CINAHL, Scopus, and ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global was conducted until 3 November 2021. Screening and data extraction were conducted in two steps: title and abstract screening followed by full-text review. Full text review resulted in a total of 51 studies included in this review. The results demonstrated the need for higher-than-standard doses for meropenem, imipenem, and vancomycin and reduced dosing intervals for ceftriaxone in patients with ARC. The potential need for increased dosing frequency in patients with ARC was also found for both enoxaparin and levetiracetam. In conclusion, ARC has been shown to influence the probability of target attainment in several medications requiring dosing changes to mitigate the risk of therapeutic failure.

Optimization of levetiracetam dosing regimen in critically ill patients with augmented renal clearance: a Monte Carlo simulation study

Background

Levetiracetam pharmacokinetics is extensively altered in critically ill patients with augmented renal clearance (ARC). Consequently, the dosage regimens commonly used in clinical practice may not be sufficient to achieve target plasma concentrations. The aim of this study is to propose alternative dosage regimens able to achieve target concentrations in this population. Furthermore, the feasibility of the proposed dosing regimens will be discussed from a clinical point of view.

Methods

Different dosage regimens for levetiracetam were evaluated in critically ill patients with ARC. Monte Carlo simulations were conducted with extended or continuous infusions and/or high drug doses using a previously developed population pharmacokinetic model. To assess the clinical feasibility of the proposed dosages, we carried out a literature search to evaluate the information on toxicity and efficacy of continuous administration or high doses, as well as the post-dilution stability of levetiracetam.

Results

According to the simulations, target concentrations in patients with CrCl of 160 or 200 mL/min can be achieved with the 3000 mg daily dose by prolonging the infusion time of levetiracetam. For patients with CrCl of 240 mL/min, it would be necessary to administer doses higher than the maximum recommended. Available evidence suggests that levetiracetam administration in continuous infusion or at higher doses than those approved seems to be safe. It would be desirable to re-examinate the current recommendations about drug stability and to achieve a consensus in this issue.

Conclusions

Conventional dosage regimens of levetiracetam (500–1500 mg twice daily in a short infusion) do not allow obtaining drug plasma concentrations among the defined target in critically ill patients with ARC. Therefore, new dosing guidelines with specific recommendations for patients in this subpopulation are needed. This study proposes new dosages for levetiracetam, including extended (4 or 6 h) infusions, continuous infusions or the administration of doses higher than the recommended in the summary of product characteristics (> 3000 mg). These new dosage recommendations take into account biopharmaceutical and pharmacokinetic aspects and meet feasibility criteria, which allow them to be transferred to the clinical environment with safety and efficacy. Nevertheless, further clinical studies are needed to confirm these results.