Targeting the Gut: A Systematic Review of Specific Drug Nanocarriers

Probiotic cell-free supernatant as effective antimicrobials against Klebsiella pneumoniae and reduce antibiotic resistance development

This study evaluated the antimicrobial activity, resistance development, and synergistic potential of cell-free supernatant (CFSs) derived from Levilactobacillus brevis (Lb-CFS) and Lactiplantibacillus plantarum (Lp-CFS) against Klebsiella pneumoniae. Both CFSs exhibited potent growth inhibition, with minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of 128 μg/mL and 64 μg/mL for Lb-CFS and Lp-CFS, respectively, and demonstrated dose-dependent bactericidal activity, achieving complete bacterial eradication at minimum bactericidal concentrations (MBC) within 6 h. The CFSs suppressed the expression of virulence genes (galF, wzi, and manC) and biofilm formation in a dose-dependent manner. Synergistic interactions were observed when combining CFSs with antibiotics, resulting in 2- to fourfold reductions in antibiotic MICs and MBCs. Notably, adaptive evolution experiments revealed significantly slower resistance development in K. pneumoniae against CFSs (twofold MIC/MBC increase) compared to antibiotics (16- to 128-fold increase) after 21 days. Furthermore, CFS-adapted strains exhibited increased antibiotic susceptibility, while antibiotic-adapted strains displayed cross-resistance to multiple antibiotics. No cross-resistance occurred between Lb-CFS and Lp-CFS, suggesting distinct adaptive mechanisms. These findings highlight the potential of probiotic-derived CFSs as effective antimicrobials with a lower propensity for inducing rapid resistance compared to conventional antibiotics, suggesting their promise in combating multidrug-resistant infections.

Exploring the impact of bioactive peptides from fermented Milk proteins: A review with emphasis on health implications and artificial intelligence integration

This review explores the health benefits of bioactive peptides (BAPs) from fermented milk proteins, emphasizing the transformative role of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) in advancing this field. BAPs exhibit diverse biological activities, including antimicrobial, antihypertensive, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory effects, making them promising for functional foods and nutraceuticals. However, challenges such as stability, bioavailability, and cost-effective production remain. This review highlights how AI/ML-driven tools, including data mining, sequence analysis, and predictive modeling, revolutionize peptide discovery, optimize fermentation, and enable personalized nutrition. By accelerating the identification of novel peptides and enhancing production efficiency, AI/ML offers innovative solutions to overcome existing limitations. The integration of AI/ML not only improves research efficiency but also opens new avenues for personalized nutrition and therapeutic applications. This review underscores the potential of interdisciplinary collaboration to harness the benefits of BAPs fully, driving future advancements in functional foods and health promotion.

Tailoring alginate nanoparticles: influence of reverse micelle templates on structure, size, and encapsulation properties

In this work, alginate nanoparticles (ALG-NPs) were synthesized using reverse micelles (RMs) as nanoreactors to investigate how interfacial charge influences their structure, size, and encapsulation properties. Three types of RMs were employed: (i) anionic RMs formed by sodium bis(2-ethylhexyl)sulfosuccinate (AOT) in isopropyl myristate, (ii) cationic RMs formed by benzyl-hexadecyl-dimethylammonium chloride (BHDC) in toluene, and (iii) nonionic RMs formed by 2-[4-(2,4,4-trimethylpentan-2-yl)phenoxy]ethanol (TX-100) in cyclohexane. ALG-NPs were synthesized at varying water contents (W 0 = [H2O]/[surfactant]) and resuspended in water at pH 6.5 for characterization. Dynamic light scattering revealed that nanoparticle size is highly dependent on the RM template. ALG-NPs synthesized in AOT RMs were the smallest, with their size increasing as W 0 increased, a trend also observed for TX-100 RMs. In contrast, the opposite behavior was observed in BHDC RMs, where nanoparticle size decreased with increasing W 0. This difference reflects the degree of crosslinking with Ca2+ ions as influenced by interfacial charge. Using N,N-dimethyl-6-propionyl-2-naphthylamine (PRODAN) and curcumin, we found that AOT-based ALG-NPs were the most compact and rigid, offering prolonged protection for curcumin against degradation under ambient conditions. This study underscores the potential of tailoring ALG-NPs through precise control of interfacial environments, offering new opportunities for applications in food technology, nutraceuticals, and biotechnology. By stabilizing bioactive compounds and enhancing bioavailability, these findings pave the way for innovative functional formulations.

Oral dosage forms for drug delivery to the colon: an existing gap between research and commercial applications

Oral drug administration is the preferred route for pharmaceuticals, accounting for ~90% of the global pharmaceutical market due to its convenience and cost-effectiveness. This study provides a comprehensive scientific and technological analysis of the latest advances in oral dosage forms for colon-targeted drug delivery. Utilizing scientific and patent databases, along with a bibliometric analysis and bibliographical review, we compared the oral dosage forms (technology) with the specific application of the technology (colon delivery) using four search equations. Our findings reveal a gap in the publications and inventions associated with oral dosage forms for colon release compared to oral dosage forms for general applications. While tablets and capsules were found the most used dosage forms, other platforms such as nanoparticles, microparticles, and emulsions have been also explored. Enteric coatings are the most frequently applied excipient to prevent the early drug release in the stomach with pH-triggered systems being the predominant release mechanism. In summary, this review provides a comprehensive analysis of the last advancements and high-impact resources in the development of oral dosage forms for colon-targeted drug delivery, providing insights into the technological maturity of these approaches.

Niosomes as a targeted drug delivery system in the treatment of breast cancer: preparation, classification and mechanisms of cellular uptake

Breast cancer (BC) remains one of the significant health issues across the globe, being diagnosed in millions of women worldwide annually. Conventional therapeutic options have substantial adverse effects due to their non-specificity and limited drug bioavailability. Niosomes, being novel drug delivery systems formed from non-ionic surfactants, with or without cholesterol and charge-inducing agents, are used as therapeutic options in treating BC. Their formulation by various methods enhances the therapeutic efficacy and bioavailability and minimises side effects. Niosomal formulation of tamoxifen exhibits target drug delivery with enhanced stability, whereas docetaxel and methotrexate show sustained and controlled drug release, respectively. 5-Fluorouracil, doxorubicin, paclitaxel, cyclophosphamide and epirubicin show improved cytotoxic effects against BC when combined with other agents. Furthermore, repurposed niosomal formulations of anti-cancer drugs show improved penetration, reduced tumour volume and significantly enhanced anti-tumour effect. This review article focuses on the composition of niosomes and their application in BC treatment and then examines how niosomes could contribute to BC research.

Use of pH-sensitive microcapsules for selective delivery of nanozymes and biological enzymes in small intestine

Unlike the intravenous route, oral delivery systems face challenges due to an acidic gastric environment, which can degrade or inactivate therapeutic compounds before they reach the small intestine (SI). Therefore, developing oral delivery strategies that protect cargo from acidic environments and release the content in the SI is imperative. Herein, a novel approach utilizes the pH-sensitivity of alginate-based microcapsules that degrade and release the contents at pH ≥ 7.0. The microcapsules were used to encapsulate gold nanoparticles (AuNPs, a model nanozyme) of varying sizes (2, 15, and 70 nm) and horseradish peroxidase (HRP, a model enzyme). The AuNPs- and HRP-loaded microcapsules (AuNPs-MCap and HRP-PEG MCap) were unaffected at acidic pH (2.0-6.0), as the intrinsic structure and properties of encapsulated AuNPs and HRP were intact. The microcapsules rapidly released the encapsulated AuNPs and HRP at pH ≥ 7.0. In vivo, oral administration of AuNPs-MCap and HRP-PEG MCap to Wistar rats also showed significantly enhanced absorption of AuNPs and HRP in SI, leading to higher concentrations in blood than in their corresponding unencapsulated forms. Overall, the results underscore the potential of pH-responsive microcapsules for protecting pH-sensitive nanozymes, biological enzymes and other bioactive compounds from the acidic gastric environment and for effective and targeted delivery to the SI.

Systematic review of peptide nanoparticles for improved diabetes outcomes: insights and opportunities

This present study carried out a systematic review and meta-analysis of peptide nanoparticles in diabetes management for improved patient outcomes from 2014 to 2024. Different electronic databases, including PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, ResearchGate, Google Scholar, and the Cochrane Library, were searched for relevant literature using Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) and boolean operators. A total of 317 articles were obtained and include PUBMED (39), Scopus (215), ResearchGate (30), Google Scholar (25), and Cochrane Library (8). From these, 186 duplicate entries were eliminated, while 76 articles were dismissed for some reasons. After scanning the titles, abstracts, and contents of the remaining 55 articles for relevance, 22 articles were eliminated. After a full-text screening using inclusion/exclusion criteria, an additional 11 articles were discarded, while 4 were excluded during the data extraction phase. In the end, seven (7) publications were considered relevant based on the eligibility criteria, representing 2.22%. Results showed that sequential exclusion of the studies did not have a significant impact on the effects of peptide nanoparticles on glucose control, insulin delivery, bioavailability, efficacy, safety, and patient outcomes in diabetes management. Also, peptide nanoparticles had positive improvement on glycemic control, insulin levels, glycated hemoglobin (HbA1C) levels, and overall patient outcomes. The study concludes that peptide nanoparticles harbour the potential to improve diabetes management through enhanced glucose control, insulin delivery, and patient outcomes. However, there is a significant gap in knowledge. Further research is required to understand the long-term safety and efficacy of many of the enlisted nanoparticles. Additionally, future studies should explore a wider range of peptides and proteins for encapsulation, develop delivery systems for larger and conformationally diverse molecules, and improve the oral bioavailability of encapsulated therapeutics. Long-term clinical trials are needed to validate this approach in humans and elucidate the underlying mechanisms for optimal treatment design. If these knowledge gaps are addressed, peptide nanoparticles will unavoidably become a powerful tool for effective management of diabetes along with traditional methods.

Niosome Preparation Techniques and Structure-An Illustrated Review

A comprehensive review of recent research on niosomes was conducted using a mixed methodology, including searches in databases such as Scopus, PubMed, and Web of Science (WoS). Articles were selected based on relevance. The current review examines the historical development of niosomes focusing on the methods of preparations and the contemporary strategies and prospective advancements within the realm of drug delivery systems, highlighting innovative approaches across transdermal, oral, and cellular delivery. This review reported the method of niosomes preparations including a new and novel approach for the preparation of niosomes known as the ball milling method (BM). This technique allows for the precise manipulation of size and shape, leading to improvements in drug release, encapsulation efficiency, and uniformity compared to traditional methods. Niosomes can serve as carriers for delivering various types of drugs, including hydrophobic, hydrophilic, and amphiphilic. This improves the efficiency of encapsulating different drugs, the size of targeted particles, and the desired zeta potential. This is achieved by using a specific charge-inducing agent for drug delivery and targeting specific diseases. These efforts are crucial for overcoming the current limitations and unlocking the full therapeutic potential of modern medicine.

The landscape of new therapeutic opportunities for IBD

This chapter presents an overview of the emerging strategies to address the unmet needs in the management of inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD). IBD poses significant challenges, as over half of patients experience disease progression despite interventions, leading to irreversible complications, and a substantial proportion do not respond to existing therapies, such as biologics. To overcome these limitations, we describe a diverse array of novel therapeutic approaches. In the area of immune homeostasis restoration, the focus is on targeting cytokine networks, leukocyte trafficking, novel immune pathways, and cell therapies involving regulatory T cells and mesenchymal stem cells (MSC). Recognizing the critical role of impaired intestinal barrier integrity in IBD, we highlight therapies aimed at restoring barrier function and promoting mucosal healing, such as those targeting cell proliferation, tight junctions, and lipid mediators. Addressing the challenges posed by fibrosis and fistulas, we describe emerging targets for reversing fibrosis like kinase and cytokine inhibitors and nuclear receptor agonists, as well as the potential of MSC for fistulas. The restoration of a healthy gut microbiome, through strategies like fecal microbiota transplantation, rationally defined bacterial consortia, and targeted antimicrobials, is also highlighted. We also describe innovative approaches to gut-targeted drug delivery to enhance efficacy and minimize side effects. Reinforcing these advancements is the critical role of precision medicine, which emphasizes the use of multiomics analysis for the discovery of biomarkers to enable personalized IBD care. Overall, the emerging landscape of therapeutic opportunities for IBD holds great potential to surpass the therapeutic ceiling of current treatments.

Improved Malaria Therapy with Cationic Nanocapsules Demonstrated in Plasmodium berghei-Infected Rodents Using Whole Blood Surrogate Population PK/PD Modeling

Objectives: Investigating how nanoparticle systems interact in whole blood (WB) is critical to evaluating the effectiveness of malaria therapy. Methods: We decided to establish a pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) model of the quinine population in WB using Plasmodium berghei-infected mice, with a subsequent model comparison for nanocapsules coated with polysorbate (NCP80) or prepared with Eudragit® RS (NCEUD). The WB quinine population pharmacokinetic model in rats was developed using plasma and partition coefficients for rat erythrocytes. Mouse WB quinine population PK/PD modeling was developed using allometrically scaled literature-free mouse quinine pharmacokinetic data and covariate values to obtain a WB population pharmacokinetic model for quinine and nanocapsules in mice. This allowed for PK/PD modeling of the quinine population with the WB concentration and parasitemia data in mice. All models were built in NONMEN. Results: The WB quinine concentration profiles in rats were characterized using a two-compartment model. Nanoencapsulation reduced clearance and central compartment volume and increased peripherical compartimental volume. A maximum effect model described the PK/PD of the quinine WB population in mice, demonstrating that NCEUD enhances the antimalarial effect. Conclusions: Quinine WB is a good surrogate for describing the response to exposure in malaria. NCEUD outperformed NCP80 and free quinine, suggesting that cationic surfaces improve the potential for treating malaria.

Recent Progress of Oral Functional Nanomaterials for Intestinal Microbiota Regulation

The gut microbiota is closely associated with human health, and alterations in gut microbiota can influence various physiological and pathological activities in the human body. Therefore, microbiota regulation has become an important strategy in current disease treatment, albeit facing numerous challenges. Nanomaterials, owing to their excellent protective properties, drug release capabilities, targeting abilities, and good biocompatibility, have been widely developed and utilized in pharmaceuticals and dietary fields. In recent years, significant progress has been made in research on utilizing nanomaterials to assist in regulating gut microbiota for disease intervention. This review explores the latest advancements in the application of nanomaterials for microbiota regulation and offers insights into the future development of nanomaterials in modulating gut microbiota.