Bioherbicidal Potential of the Essential Oils from Mediterranean Lamiaceae for Weed Control in Organic Farming

Biological Activity of Monoterpene-Based Scaffolds: A Natural Toolbox for Drug Discovery

One of the most common strategies used in drug design is the molecular scaffold approach, which combines traditional medicine based on natural active compounds derived from plants with modern synthetic drug development. Designing new compounds based on natural skeletons enables extensive modifications of both bioavailability and biological activity. An excellent example of a natural molecular scaffold is the monoterpenes group, which serves as a core structure for building more complex molecules by attaching various chemical groups. Their ability to interact with biological targets, combined with structural versatility, makes them promising molecular scaffolds in pharmaceutical research and green chemistry applications. This review paper focuses on selected monoterpenes (carvacrol, carvone, citral, menthol, menthone, β-pinene, thymol, and verbenone), which are frequently used as molecular scaffolds. The newly designed derivatives exhibit various biological activities, including anticancer, antibacterial, antiviral, neuroprotective, and many others.

Via Air or Rhizosphere: The Phytotoxicity of Nepeta Essential Oils and Malus Dihydrochalcones

Many specialized metabolites found in plants have significant potential for developing environmentally friendly weed management solutions. This review focuses on the phytotoxic effects of volatile terpenes and phenolic compounds, particularly nepetalactone, an iridoid monoterpenoid from Nepeta species, and phloretin, a dihydrochalcone predominantly found in the genus Malus. We highlight current findings on their herbicidal effects, including morphological, physiological, and biochemical responses in target plants. These results underscore their potential for developing sustainable herbicides that could control weeds with minimal environmental impact. We also discuss their soil persistence and methods to enhance their solubility, chemical stability, and bioavailability. Additionally, the possible effects on non-target organisms, such as pollinators, non-pollinating insects, and soil microbiota, are considered. However, further research and a deeper understanding of their long-term ecological impact, along with a resistance development risk assessment, is essential for the potential development of bioherbicides that could be applied in sustainable weed management practices.

Salvia pratensis L. extracts as potential eco-friendly herbicides for sustainable agricultural applications

The aim of this study is based on the searching of "new" potential environmentally friendly plant based products with herbicidal activity. The purpose of the study is also to find the source which is easy to harvest in high amount within the local environment. Salvia pratensis L. is the common medow plant. It is spread all over the world in temperate zone in high density. The investigation of its composition and potential biological activity have been very less studied comparing to the most famous Salvia officinals L. The idea of the research also focused on plant sourse which is easy to reach and harvest as well as provide the experiments economically interested. The extraction of active components were prepared by hot water in two different degrees (60 °C and 100 °C) and soxhlet extraction by three different concentration of ethanol (10%, 30% and 70%). The total phenolic content, total flavonoid content, rosmarinic acid content, as well as the phytotoxic and antioxidant potential of the extracts were evaluated. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (HCA) were conducted to compare the different extracts. The extraction method significantly influenced the quantity of dry mass and quantity of phenolic compounds in the extracts. Concerning to phytotoxic activity, the highes effectivity was observed in the etanolic extract with lowest concentration (10%). No germination was observed in any of the four model plants after applying the highest doses. In summary, in current investigation was found the effective low cost extraction method for extraction of secondary metabolites - active components from S. pratensis which than appears to be a promising natural source with potential herbicidal effect.

Validation of shikimate dehydrogenase as the herbicidal target of drupacine and screening of target-based compounds with high herbicidal activity

The discovery of new targets and lead compounds is the key to developing new pesticides. The herbicidal target of drupacine has been identified as shikimate dehydrogenase (SkDH). However, the mechanism of interaction between them remains unclear. This study found that drupacine specifically binds to SkDH with a dissociation equilibrium constant (KD) of 8.88 μM and a Kd value of 2.15 μM, as confirmed by surface plasmon resonance and microscale thermophoresis. Site-directed mutagenesis coupled with fluorescence quenching analysis indicated that residue THR431 was the key amino acid site for drupacine binding to SkDH. Nine compounds with the best binding ability to SkDH were identified by virtual screening from about 120,000 compounds. Among them, compound 8 showed the highest inhibition rate with values of 41.95% against SkDH, also exhibiting the strongest herbicidal activity. This research identifies a novel potential target SkDH and a candidate lead compound with high herbicidal activity for developing new herbicides.

Chemical Composition of Five Lamiaceae Essential Oils and Their Insecticidal and Phytotoxic Activity

The Lamiaceae family is widely distributed worldwide. In this study, we investigated the insecticidal activity of five Lamiaceae essential oils against Thrips flavus Schrank and the phytotoxic activity against Glycine max (L.) Merr., Zea mays L., Portulaca oleracea L., and Echinochloa oryzoides (Ard.) Fritsch. Then, the chemical composition of the five essential oils was analyzed by using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The five Lamiaceae essential oils were melissa, basil, rosemary, negundo chastetree, and salvia. The main constituents of the five Lamiaceae essential oils were preliminarily determined to be as follows: α-pinene and 1,8-cineole in the rosemary essential oil; β-pinene, γ-terpinene, and d-limonene in the negundo chastetree essential oil; β-cadinene and isolongifolen-5-one in the melissa essential oil; 5-allylguaiacol in the basil essential oil; and isopropyl myristate, linalyl acetate, and linalool in the salvia essential oil. Using a bioassay, it was found that, among the five essential oils, the melissa essential oil exhibited the lowest LC50 value, which was 0.18 mg/mL, and the salvia essential oil exhibited the highest LC50 value, which was 0.42 mg/mL. The control efficacy of the five essential oils significantly increased with time and concentration in pot experiments. The negundo chastetree, basil, rosemary, and salvia essential oils at 900.00 g a.i.·hm-2 showed high control efficacy against T. flavus, with values higher than 90%. Female thrips were attracted to the negundo chastetree essential oil. The five essential oils were also tested for their effects on the germination rate, germination potential, germination index, and shoot length of G. max, Z. mays, P. oleracea, and E. oryzoides. The basil essential oil significantly inhibited the germination of P. oleracea, with germination at a concentration of 1.0 mg/mL being only 11.11 ± 5.09%. This study provides a reference for the development of botanical pesticides to control T. flavus, crops, and weeds.

Combining the Pharmaceutical and Toxicological Properties of Selected Essential Oils with their Chemical Components by GC-MS Analysis

In the current investigation, a comprehensive analysis was carried out on essential oils (EOs) extracted from six aromatic plant species, namely Rosmarinus officinalis, Pelargonium graveolens, Thymus vulgaris, Origanum vulgare, Laurus nobilis, and Aloysia citrodora. An exploration was conducted into the chemical composition using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS), antioxidant properties assessed through DPPH, ABTS, CUPRAC, FRAP, MCA, and PBD assays, ecotoxicological impacts evaluated via allelopathy and the Daphnia magna heartbeat test, as well as bio-pharmacological effects including anticancer activity and gene expression analysis. Results revealed strong antioxidant activity in all essential oils, with T. vulgaris EO (2748.00 mg TE/g) and O. vulgare EO (2609.29 mg TE/g) leading in CUPRAC assay. R. officinalis EO showed the highest α-amylase inhibition at 1.58 mmol ACAE/g, while O. vulgare EO excelled in α-glucosidase inhibition at 1.57 mmol ACAE/g. Additionally, cytotoxic effects were evaluated on human colorectal cancer (HCT116) cells. A. citrodora, O. vulgare, and R. officinalis EOs were found the most potent anticancer, as also witnessed by their higher modulatory effects on the gene expression of BAX and Bcl-2. Collectively, the present data highlight the importance to implement the knowledge and to valorize the supply chain of aromatic plants.

Aerobiology of the Family Lamiaceae: Novel Perspectives with Special Reference to Volatiles Emission

Lamiaceae is a botanical family rich in aromatic species that are in high demand such as basil, lavender, mint, oregano, sage, and thyme. It has great economical, ecological, ethnobotanical, and floristic importance. The aim of this work is to provide an updated view on the aerobiology of species from the family Lamiaceae, with an emphasis on novelties and emerging applications. From the aerobiology point of view, the greatest interest in this botanical family is related to the volatile organic compounds emitted by the plants and, to a much lesser extent, their pollen. Research has shown that the major volatile organic compounds emitted by the plants from this botanical family are monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes. The most important monoterpenes reported across studies include α-pinene, β-pinene, 1,8-cineole, menthol, limonene, and γ-terpinene. Most reports tend to cover species from the subfamily Nepetoideae. Volatile oils are produced by glandular trichomes found on aerial organs. Based on general morphology, two main types are found in the family Lamiaceae, namely peltate and capitate trichomes. As a result of pollinator-mediated transfer of pollen, Lamiaceae species present a reduced number of stamens and quantity of pollen. This might explain the low probability of pollen presence in the air from these species. A preliminary synopsis of the experimental evidence presented in this work suggests that the interplay of the organic particles and molecules released by these plants and their environment could be leveraged for beneficial outcomes in agriculture and landscaping. Emerging reports propose their use for intercropping to ensure the success of fructification, increased yield of entomophilous crops, as well as in sensory gardens due to the therapeutic effect of volatiles.

Potential of Artemisia dubia Wall Biomass for Natural Crop Protection

The Green Deal strategy has the very ambitious goal of transforming the European Union into the first climate-neutral continent by 2050. For the agricultural sector, one of the main challenges is to reduce the use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides. Crop protection measures aim to maintain and ensure certain standards of yield and quality, which are generally achieved by the control of pests, diseases, and weeds. One of the possibilities to reduce the use of pesticides could be allelopathic plants, which are not only potential sources of allelochemicals but also renewable biomass sources. The aim of this study was to analyze the productivity of Artemisia dubia Wall and evaluate the allelopathic effects of biomass on crops and weeds. It was determined that the biomass productivity of A. dubia varied from 2 to 18 t ha-1, depending on how many times it is cut during the growing season and the fertilizer rate. A. dubia has allelopathic properties, which were verified using an aqueous extract and can completely suppress the germination of Taraxacum officinale seeds. Young plants harvested in the middle of summer were characterized by the highest number of phenolic compounds. This shows the strong allelopathic effect of A. dubia biomass on other plants.

Spatial Variation in Yield, Chemical Composition, and Phytotoxic Activity of Cistus ladanifer Essential Oils

Cistus ladanifer L. (rockrose) is a widespread shrub species of the Mediterranean region with products highly valued by the perfume and cosmetics industry. In this research, the variability in yield, chemical composition and phytotoxic activity of C. ladanifer essential oils collected from 12 plots belonging to four natural populations and settled on two different types of edaphic substrates were evaluated. The essential oils were analyzed by GC-MS. The essential oil content ranged from 0.19 to 0.42 mL/100 g. The volatile profiles were found to be rich in oxygenated sesquiterpenes and oxygenated monoterpenes. PCA analysis clustered the samples into two groups that were mainly attributed to the type of substrate on which the plants grow. Furthermore, CCA and correlation analysis revealed that soil organic matter was the most effective edaphoclimatic driver accounting for these high levels of variation in essential oil yield and composition. Finally, C. ladanifer essential oils showed strong phytotoxic activity on R. sativus seedlings, indicating its potential use as a natural bio-herbicide in agriculture. The results showed that the effect associated to local edaphoclimatic conditions not only impacted on the quality and quantity of the essential oil, but also on the industrial uses derived from its biological activities.

Plant Essential Oils as Biopesticides: Applications, Mechanisms, Innovations, and Constraints

The advent of the "Green Revolution" was a great success in significantly increasing crop productivity. However, it involved high ecological costs in terms of excessive use of synthetic agrochemicals, raising concerns about agricultural sustainability. Indiscriminate use of synthetic pesticides resulted in environmental degradation, the development of pest resistance, and possible dangers to a variety of nontarget species (including plants, animals, and humans). Thus, a sustainable approach necessitates the exploration of viable ecofriendly alternatives. Plant-based biopesticides are attracting considerable attention in this context due to their target specificity, ecofriendliness, biodegradability, and safety for humans and other life forms. Among all the relevant biopesticides, plant essential oils (PEOs) or their active components are being widely explored against weeds, pests, and microorganisms. This review aims to collate the information related to the expansion and advancement in research and technology on the applications of PEOs as biopesticides. An insight into the mechanism of action of PEO-based bioherbicides, bioinsecticides, and biofungicides is also provided. With the aid of bibliometric analysis, it was found that ~75% of the documents on PEOs having biopesticidal potential were published in the last five years, with an annual growth rate of 20.51% and a citation per document of 20.91. Research on the biopesticidal properties of PEOs is receiving adequate attention from European (Italy and Spain), Asian (China, India, Iran, and Saudi Arabia), and American (Argentina, Brazil, and the United States of America) nations. Despite the increasing biopesticidal applications of PEOs and their widespread acceptance by governments, they face many challenges due to their inherent nature (lipophilicity and high volatility), production costs, and manufacturing constraints. To overcome these limitations, the incorporation of emerging innovations like the nanoencapsulation of PEOs, bioinformatics, and RNA-Seq in biopesticide development has been proposed. With these novel technological interventions, PEO-based biopesticides have the potential to be used for sustainable pest management in the future.

Phytotoxicity of Rich Oxygenated Terpenes Essential Oil of Prosopis farcta against the Weed Dactyloctenium aegyptium

Weeds are considered the main reason for crop yield loss in the world. Weed control and management include various treatments such as cultural, physical, chemical, and biological methods. Chemical control of weeds is the most common method; however, the application of commercial synthetic herbicides caused several dangerous hazards in the environment including the appearance of resistant weed biotypes. Prosopis farcta (Banks & Sol.) J.F.Macbr. (Family: Fabaceae), is a common weed plant in the Middle East, where it is hard to eliminate due to its deep and overlapped roots. On the other side, it has many traditional uses around the world. Herein, the essential oil (EO) of P. farcta above-ground parts was extracted via hydrodistillation techniques and then analyzed using gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GC-MS). From the GC-MS analysis, 47 compounds were identified with a relative concentration of 98.02%, including terpenes as the main components (95.08%). From overall identified compounds, cubenol (19.07%), trans-chrysanthenyl acetate (17.69%), torreyol (8.28%), davana ether (3.50%), camphor (3.35%), and farnesyl acetone (3.13%) represented the abundant constituents. Furthermore, the phytotoxic activity of the P. farcta EO was assessed against the weed Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Willd. The EO of P. farcta, at a concentration of 100 µL L−1, significantly inhibited the germination, seedling shoot growth, and seedling root growth by 64.1, 64.0, and 73.4%, respectively. The results exhibited that the seedling root growth is the most affected followed by the seed germination and seedling shoot growth with respective IC50 at 64.5, 80.5, and 92.9 µL L−1. It can be concluded that weeds are not absolutely harmful, but they may have beneficial uses, such as, for example as a source of phytochemicals with application in weed control practices (bioherbicides). It is advised to conduct additional research to characterize the allelopathic action of the major chemicals in their pure form, either alone or in combination, against a variety of weeds.

Sustainable Weed Management

Weeds are the most important biological constraint determining yield losses for field crops [...].

Influence of Season and Habitat on the Essential Oils Composition, Allelopathy, and Antioxidant Activities of Artemisia monosperma Delile

Plants belonging to the Artemisia genus (Asteraceae) are widely distributed worldwide and have many ethnopharmacological, traditional, therapeutic, and phytochemical aspects. Artemisia monosperma is an important aromatic plant due to its traditional and therapeutic uses and phytochemical diversity, including essential oils (EOs). The EO chemical profile of aromatic plants has been reported to be affected by exogenous and endogenous factors. Geographic and seasonal variations are crucial factors shaping the chemical composition of the EO. Herein, the variations of the yields, chemical profiles, and allelopathic and antioxidant activities of A. monosperma EOs collected from three regions in four seasons were assessed. A slight variation in the oil yields was observed among regions and seasons, while the chemical profile, characterized via GC-MS, exhibited significant quantitative and qualitative variation among either regions or seasons. Sesquiterpenes were the main components of all EOs, with significant variation in concentration. In most EO samples, the summer-plant samples had the highest concentration of sesquiterpenes, followed by spring, winter, and autumn. The 7-epi-trans-sesquisabinene hydrate, 6-epi-shyobunol, dehydro-cyclolongifolene oxide, isoshyobunone, diepicedrene-1-oxide, dehydro-aromadendrene, and junipene were the main compounds of all the EO samples. The extracted EOs of the A. monosperma samples showed considerable allelopathic activity against the weed Dactyloctenium aegyptium and the crop Lactuca sativa. A significant variation in allelopathic activity was observed among samples collected during different seasons, while the samples of the autumn and summer seasons had more potential. Also, L. sativa was more affected by the EO compared to D. aegyptium, reflecting that weeds are more resistant to allelochemicals. In this context, the EOs of A. monosperma samples exhibited substantial antioxidant activity with the same pattern of allelopathic activity, whereas the samples of the autumn and summer seasons showed higher antioxidant activity. These biological activities of the EOs could be ascribed to the higher content of oxygenated compounds. The present study revealed that seasons have a substantial effect on EO production as well as composition. In consequence, the biological activities varied with the variation of the chemical profile of the EO. These results show the importance of season/timing for sampling aromatic plants.

Effects of Piper betle L. Extract and Allelochemical Eugenol on Rice and Associated Weeds Germination and Seedling Growth

Natural herbicide is considered as a sustainable approach for weed management in agriculture. Here, allelopathic activities of Piper betle L. extract (BE) and known allelochemical eugenol (EU) were studied against rice and associated weeds in terms of germination and seedling growth. Five plant species including a rice crop (Oryza sativa L.); a dicot weed, false daisy (Eclipta prostrata (L.) L.); and three monocot weeds, barnyard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) P. Beauv.), swollen fingergrass (Chloris barbata Sw.), and weedy rice (Oryza sativa f. spontanea Roshev.) were studied. The paper-based results demonstrated that BE and EU had inhibitory effects on seed germination and seedling growth. The IC₅₀ values of BE and EU for seed germination were ranked from swollen fingergrass, to false daisy, barnyard grass, rice, and weedy rice, respectively. The ratio of root to shoot length of the seedlings indicated that the roots were more affected by the treatments than the shoots. In addition, the gel-based results showed the reduction of the rice seedling root system, especially on lateral root length and the numbers upon the treatments. Taken together, BE had an allelopathic activity similar to that of EU. Interestingly, the major paddy weed, barnyard grass, was more sensitive to BE than rice, underlining BE as a natural herbicide in rice agriculture.

Determination and Quantification of Phytochemicals from the Leaf Extract of Parthenium hysterophorus L. and Their Physio-Biochemical Responses to Several Crop and Weed Species

This current investigation was undertaken both in laboratory and glasshouse for documentation and quantification of phytochemicals from different parts of the parthenium (Parthenium hysterophorus L.) plant through LC-MS and HPLC to study their effect on two crops namely, Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranean L.) and maize (Zea mays L.), and six different types of weed e.g., Digitaria sanguinalis, Eleusine indica, Ageratum conyzoides, Cyperus iria, Euphorbia hirta, and Cyperus difformis. The parthenium methanolic leaf extracts at 25, 50, 75, and 100 g L^-1 were sprayed in the test crops and weeds to assess their physiological and biochemical reactions after 6, 24, 48, and 72 h of spraying these compounds (HAS). The LC-MS analysis confirmed seven types of phytochemicals (caffeic acid, ferulic acid, vanillic acid, parthenin, chlorogenic acid, quinic acid, and p-anisic acid) in the parthenium leaf extract that were responsible for the inhibition of tested crops and weeds. From the HPLC analysis, higher amounts in leaf methanol extracts (40,752.52 ppm) than those of the stem (2664.09 ppm) and flower extracts (30,454.33 ppm) were recorded. Parthenium leaf extract at 100 g L^-1 had observed higher phytotoxicity on all weed species except C. difformis. However, all crops were found safe under this dose of extraction. Although both crops were also affected to some extent, they could recover from the stress after a few days. The photosynthetic rate, transpiration rate, stomatal conductance, carotenoid and chlorophyll content were decreased due to the application of parthenium leaf extract. However, when parthenium leaf extract was applied at 100 g L^-1 for 72 h, the malondialdehyde (MDA) and proline content were increased in all weeds. Enzymatic antioxidant activity (e.g., superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and peroxidase (POD) contents) were also elevated as a result of the sprayed parthenium leaf extract. The negative impact of physiological and biochemical responses as a consequence of the parthenium leaf extract led the weed species to be stressed and finally killed. The current findings show the feasibility of developing bioherbicide from the methanolic extract of parthenium leaf for controlling weeds, which will be cost-effective, sustainable, and environment friendly for crop production during the future changing climate.

Documentation of Phytotoxic Compounds Existing in Parthenium hysterophorus L. Leaf and Their Phytotoxicity on Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. and Digitaria sanguinalis (L.) Scop

The utilization of the invasive weed, Parthenium hysterophorus L. for producing value-added products is novel research for sustaining our environment. Therefore, the current study aims to document the phytotoxic compounds contained in the leaf of parthenium and to examine the phytotoxic effects of all those phytochemicals on the seed sprouting and growth of Crabgrass Digitaria sanguinalis (L.) Scop. and Goosegrass Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. The phytotoxic substances of the methanol extract of the P. hysterophorus leaf were analyzed by LC-ESI-QTOF-MS=MS. From the LC-MS study, many compounds, such as terpenoids, flavonoids, amino acids, pseudo guaianolides, and carbohydrate and phenolic acids, were identified. Among them, seven potential phytotoxic compounds (i.e., caffeic acid, vanillic acid, ferulic acid, chlorogenic acid, quinic acid, anisic acid, and parthenin) were documented, those are responsible for plant growth inhibition. The concentration needed to reach 50% growth inhibition in respect to germination (EC_g50), root length (EC_r50), and shoot length (EC_s50) was estimated and the severity of phytotoxicity of the biochemicals was determined by the pooled values (rank value) of three inhibition parameters. The highest growth inhibition was demarcated by caffeic acid, which was confirmed and indicated by cluster analysis and principal component analysis (PCA). In the case of D. sanguinalis, the germination was reduced by 60.02%, root length was reduced by 76.49%, and shoot length was reduced by 71.14% when the chemical was applied at 800 μM concentration, but in the case of E. indica, 100% reduction of seed germination, root length, and shoot length reduction occurred at the same concentration. The lowest rank value was observed from caffeic acids in both E. indica (rank value 684.7) and D. sanguinalis (909.5) caused by parthenin. It means that caffeic acid showed the highest phytotoxicity. As a result, there is a significant chance that the parthenium weed will be used to create bioherbicides in the future.

Allelopathic Properties of Lamiaceae Species: Prospects and Challenges to Use in Agriculture

Herbicide resistance due to the increasing reliance on herbicides is a near-term challenge for the world’s agriculture. This has led to a desire to develop new herbicides with a novel mode of action, to address resistance in weed species. Lamiaceae, a large dicotyledonous plant family, is very well known for the multitudinous pharmacological and toxicological properties of its member species. Moreover, many species of this family are significant for their allelopathic activity in natural and laboratory settings. Thus, plants in Lamiaceae have the potential to be sources of alternative herbicides. However, gaps in our knowledge need to be addressed prior to adopting these allelopathic activities in agriculture. Therefore, we review the existing state of knowledge about the Lamiaceae family, the reported allelopathic properties of plant extracts, and their isolated allelochemicals under laboratory, greenhouse, and field conditions. In addition, we offer a perspective on existing challenges and future opportunities for adopting the allelopathic properties of Lamiaceae plant species for green agriculture.

Essential Oils of Three Aromatic Plant Species as Natural Herbicides for Environmentally Friendly Agriculture

Natural herbicides based on essential oils (EOs) extracted from aromatic plants are gaining relevance in contemporary agriculture. Due to their allelopathic properties, they have an inhibitory effect on the germination and growth of different species, having, in general, the advantage of high specificity. For this reason, the analysis of the effects of these natural compounds on noxious weeds is continuously increasing. In the present study, three commercial EOs extracted from Mentha piperita L., Thymbra capitata (L.) Cav. and Santolina chamaecyparissus L. were tested on two invasive weeds with an increasing presence in southern Europe, Erigeron bonariensis L. and Araujia sericifera Brot. Five concentrations (0.125, 0.25, 0.50, 1 and 2 µL mL–1) were tested in a randomized manner for each essential oil and five replicates with 20 seeds each for E. bonariensis and 10 replicates with 10 seeds each for A. sericifera. Two higher concentrations of 4 and 8 μL mL–1 of the three EOs were applied with irrigation on the plants of the two species at the vegetative growth stage. The number of replicas for each treatment and species was 7. The results obtained confirmed the significant inhibitory effects on seed germination and early seedling development, especially in E. bonariensis; of the three EOs, peppermint had the strongest effect, completely preventing germination in both species. Multivariate analysis, performed on several morphological traits scored after one month of treatment in young plants, showed a different pattern: the highest inhibition was recorded in A. sericifera and the greatest reduction in growth in the treatment with the highest dose of Santolina EO. The results obtained revealed the efficacy of these natural compounds and the specificity of their toxicity according to the species and stage of development.

Status and Prospects of Botanical Biopesticides in Europe and Mediterranean Countries

Concerning human and environmental health, safe alternatives to synthetic pesticides are urgently needed. Many of the currently used synthetic pesticides are not authorized for application in organic agriculture. In addition, the developed resistances of various pests against classical pesticides necessitate the urgent demand for efficient and safe products with novel modes of action. Botanical pesticides are assumed to be effective against various crop pests, and they are easily biodegradable and available in high quantities and at a reasonable cost. Many of them may act by diverse yet unexplored mechanisms of action. It is therefore surprising that only few plant species have been developed for commercial usage as biopesticides. This article reviews the status of botanical pesticides, especially in Europe and Mediterranean countries, deepening their active principles and mechanisms of action. Moreover, some constraints and challenges in the development of novel biopesticides are highlighted.

Trade-Off between Facilitation and Interference of Allelopathic Compounds in Vegetation Recovery: The Case of Rosmarinus officinalis in Degraded Gypsum Habitats

Rosmarinus officinalis advantageously competes with other species in restored gypsum outcrops, and further research is needed to understand the causes. Specifically, we focus on the potential allelopathic effects derived from its terpenes on the emergence of gypsum species. To this end, we established 120 circular subplots in a previously restored gypsum outcrop, and randomly applied four different treatments based on the presence/absence of rosemary plants and their leaves on the soil. Afterwards, we conducted an experimental sowing of native gypsophiles. All subplots were monitored to estimate seedling emergence, and soil and leaf samples were analysed for terpenes. The results show that the treatments had significant effects on the overall emergence of seedlings, and terpenes were found in rosemary leaves and soils, with no significant differences in terpene composition. In particular, we identified a clear negative effect in the treatment where rosemary plants were eliminated but its leaves were left along with allelopathy (2.57 ± 0.54 individuals/subplot). Unexpectedly, the presence of rosemary plants seems to facilitate the emergence of gypsum species (9.93 ± 1.61 individuals/subplot), counteracting the effects of the allelopathic substances in the soil. Consequently, we do not suggest removing rosemary plants in early stages to encourage the emergence of gypsum species in restored areas.

Plant Sampling for Production of Essential Oil and Evaluation of Its Antimicrobial Activity In Vitro

Essential oils (EOs) and oleoresins are complex mixtures mainly made up of terpenes, synthesized by a wide variety of plants. Individual terpenes may show broad-spectrum activity against different plant pathogens, and their combination into EO and oleoresin mixtures enhances plant chemical defense. The interest in EOs has significantly increased due to the trend of using natural products as herbicides, insecticidal and antimicrobial agents. In addition, the use of plant mixtures is an emerging approach to face the problem of antimicrobial resistance in agriculture. This chapter reports guidelines about plant sample collection for the production of EOs and provides protocols to test their activity as antimicrobial agents against bacteria and fungi. It also describes a solvent-free method for the inclusion of EOs into β-cyclodextrins. This type of formulate is prepared to turn liquid EOs into easily manageable water-soluble powders, and to control the release of volatile compounds, aiming to increase EOs' applications in agriculture.