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Egger K, Aicher HD, Cumming P, Scheidegger M. Neurobiological research on N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) and its potentiation by monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibition: from ayahuasca to synthetic combinations of DMT and MAO inhibitors. Cell Mol Life Sci 2024; 81:395. [PMID: 39254764 PMCID: PMC11387584 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-024-05353-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2024] [Revised: 06/19/2024] [Accepted: 07/04/2024] [Indexed: 09/11/2024]
Abstract
The potent hallucinogen N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) has garnered significant interest in recent years due to its profound effects on consciousness and its therapeutic psychopotential. DMT is an integral (but not exclusive) psychoactive alkaloid in the Amazonian plant-based brew ayahuasca, in which admixture of several β-carboline monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A) inhibitors potentiate the activity of oral DMT, while possibly contributing in other respects to the complex psychopharmacology of ayahuasca. Irrespective of the route of administration, DMT alters perception, mood, and cognition, presumably through agonism at serotonin (5-HT) 1A/2A/2C receptors in brain, with additional actions at other receptor types possibly contributing to its overall psychoactive effects. Due to rapid first pass metabolism, DMT is nearly inactive orally, but co-administration with β-carbolines or synthetic MAO-A inhibitors (MAOIs) greatly increase its bioavailability and duration of action. The synergistic effects of DMT and MAOIs in ayahuasca or synthetic formulations may promote neuroplasticity, which presumably underlies their promising therapeutic efficacy in clinical trials for neuropsychiatric disorders, including depression, addiction, and post-traumatic stress disorder. Advances in neuroimaging techniques are elucidating the neural correlates of DMT-induced altered states of consciousness, revealing alterations in brain activity, functional connectivity, and network dynamics. In this comprehensive narrative review, we present a synthesis of current knowledge on the pharmacology and neuroscience of DMT, β-carbolines, and ayahuasca, which should inform future research aiming to harness their full therapeutic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klemens Egger
- Department of Adult Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Psychiatric University Clinic Zurich and University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
- Neuroscience Center Zurich, University of Zurich and Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Bern University Hospital, Bern, Switzerland.
| | - Helena D Aicher
- Department of Adult Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Psychiatric University Clinic Zurich and University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Neuroscience Center Zurich, University of Zurich and Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Department of Psychology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Paul Cumming
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Bern University Hospital, Bern, Switzerland
- School of Psychology and Counselling, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Milan Scheidegger
- Department of Adult Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Psychiatric University Clinic Zurich and University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Neuroscience Center Zurich, University of Zurich and Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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2
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Chibli LA, de Lima BR, Carneiro AM, Figueiró HC, Cicek SS, Spiegler V, Funari CS. Toward a More Sustainable Sample Preparation in Phytochemistry: Case Studies in Four Subclasses of Alkaloids. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2024; 87:470-479. [PMID: 38381880 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.3c01048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/23/2024]
Abstract
The fact that alkaloids are bases has been the most explored chemical feature of their extraction and purification procedures. The main drawback of these procedures is that they employ undesirable chemicals, with HCl and CH2Cl2 probably being the most commonly employed chemicals in their subsequent steps. This work tested the hypothesis that advantages in recovery efficiency support this common practice. Experiments were conducted in three laboratories, monitoring the alkaloids harmine (1), boldine (2), vincamine (3), and mescaline (4) extracted from Banisteriopsis caapi, Peumus boldus, Vinca minor, and Trichocereus macrogonus var. pachanoi, respectively. The research demonstrated that HCl could be replaced with citric acid (CA) without loss or even better extraction performance. The recommended EtOAc could completely replace CH2Cl2 in three out of four study cases and partially in the fourth case without harming the extraction efficiency. In addition, the alternative solvents tert-amyl methyl ether (TAME) and n-butyl acetate (BuOAc) could enhance the extraction of alkaloids. These results might incentivize natural products laboratories to consider sustainability more routinely, thus being closer to current practices in the pharmaceutical industry, which has been replacing solvents and processes with greener ones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucas Apolinário Chibli
- Green Biotech Network, School of Agricultural Sciences, São Paulo State University (UNESP), 18610-034 Botucatu, Brazil
| | - Bruna Ribeiro de Lima
- Green Biotech Network, School of Agricultural Sciences, São Paulo State University (UNESP), 18610-034 Botucatu, Brazil
| | - Ariadne Magalhães Carneiro
- Green Biotech Network, School of Agricultural Sciences, São Paulo State University (UNESP), 18610-034 Botucatu, Brazil
| | - Harley Cardoso Figueiró
- Green Biotech Network, School of Agricultural Sciences, São Paulo State University (UNESP), 18610-034 Botucatu, Brazil
| | - Serhat Sezai Cicek
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Kiel University, Gutenbergstrase 76, 24118 Kiel, Germany
- Department of Biotechnology, Hamburg University of Applied Sciences, Ulmentliet 20, 21033 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Verena Spiegler
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology and Phytochemistry, University of Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Cristiano Soleo Funari
- Green Biotech Network, School of Agricultural Sciences, São Paulo State University (UNESP), 18610-034 Botucatu, Brazil
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Tshikhudo PP, Mabhaudhi T, Koorbanally NA, Mudau FN, Avendaño Caceres EO, Popa D, Calina D, Sharifi-Rad J. Anticancer Potential of β-Carboline Alkaloids: An Updated Mechanistic Overview. Chem Biodivers 2024; 21:e202301263. [PMID: 38108650 DOI: 10.1002/cbdv.202301263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2023] [Revised: 11/10/2023] [Accepted: 12/18/2023] [Indexed: 12/19/2023]
Abstract
his comprehensive review is designed to evaluate the anticancer properties of β-carbolines derived from medicinal plants, with the ultimate goal of assessing their suitability and potential in cancer treatment, management, and prevention. An exhaustive literature survey was conducted on a wide array of β-carbolines including, but not limited to, harmaline, harmine, harmicine, harman, harmol, harmalol, pinoline, tetrahydroharmine, tryptoline, cordysinin C, cordysinin D, norharmane, and perlolyrine. Various analytical techniques were employed to identify and screen these compounds, followed by a detailed analysis of their anticancer mechanisms. Natural β-carbolines such as harmaline and harmine have shown promising inhibitory effects on the growth of cancer cells, as evidenced by multiple in vitro and in vivo studies. Synthetically derived β-carbolines also displayed noteworthy anticancer, neuroprotective, and cognitive-enhancing effects. The current body of research emphasizes the potential of β-carbolines as a unique source of bioactive compounds for cancer treatment. The diverse range of β-carbolines derived from medicinal plants can offer valuable insights into the development of new therapeutic strategies for cancer management and prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phumudzo P Tshikhudo
- Department of Agriculture, Land Reform and Rural Development, Directorate Plant Health, Division Pest Risk Analysis, Arcadia, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Tafadzwanashe Mabhaudhi
- Centre for Transformative Agricultural and Food Systems, School of Agricultural, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, P. Bag X01, Scottsville, 3209, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa
| | - Neil A Koorbanally
- School of Chemistry and Physics, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Private Bag X54001, Durban, 4000, South Africa
| | - Fhatuwani N Mudau
- School of Agricultural, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, P. Bag X01, Scottsville, 3209, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa
| | - Edgardo Oscar Avendaño Caceres
- Departamento de quimica e ingenieria Quimica, Universidad Nacional Jorge Basadre Grohmann. Avenida Miraflores s/n, Tacna, 23001, Perú
| | - Dragos Popa
- Department of Plastic Surgery, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, 200349, Craiova, Romania
| | - Daniela Calina
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, 200349, Craiova, Romania
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Apud I, Scuro J, Rodríguez L, Hernandez G, Carrera I, Lozano F, Retta JI. Ayahuasca, Personality and Acute Psychological Effects in Neo-Shamanic and Religious Settings in Uruguay. J Psychoactive Drugs 2023; 55:581-591. [PMID: 37750012 DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2023.2261017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2023] [Accepted: 09/11/2023] [Indexed: 09/27/2023]
Abstract
This study is an interdisciplinary research into Uruguayan ayahuasca users belonging to one neo-shamanic and one Santo Daime group. The study involved the chemical analysis of ayahuasca samples, an ethnographic description of the two traditions and rituals, and the application of psychometric scales to measure personality differences, and the acute psychological effects during an ayahuasca ritual. Personality measurements showed lower scores for Santo Daime in Neuroticism-Anxiety, Dependence, Low Self-Esteem, Anger and Restlessness. These differences may be related to the presence of participants under treatment in the neo-shamanic group and/or to the protective effects of a church religion such as Santo Daime. Regarding acute effects, the neo-shamanic group showed higher scores in Somesthesia and Perception, which can be related to the high-arousal ritual setting. Chemical analysis for the ayahuasca samples showed a typical composition of alkaloids. No adulterants were found. The sample from the neo-shamanic group displayed a higher β-carbolines:DMT ratio compared to the Santo Daime sample, which could be related to the higher effects observed for Somesthesia for the neo-shamanic group. Significant positive correlations between some personality traits and acute effects were found only in the neo-shamanic group, which may be related to the more individualistic approach of this tradition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ismael Apud
- Institute of Foundations and Methods in Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Juan Scuro
- Department of Social Anthropology, Faculty of Humanities and Educational Sciences, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Luisina Rodríguez
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Gonzalo Hernandez
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Ignacio Carrera
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Frank Lozano
- Institute of Foundations and Methods in Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Juan Ignacio Retta
- Department of Social Anthropology, Faculty of Humanities and Educational Sciences, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
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Panossian A. Challenges in phytotherapy research. Front Pharmacol 2023; 14:1199516. [PMID: 37324491 PMCID: PMC10264668 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2023.1199516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2023] [Accepted: 05/18/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Panossian
- Phytomed AB, Västervik, Sweden
- EuroPharma USA Inc., Green Bay, WI, United States
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Molecular Pathways of the Therapeutic Effects of Ayahuasca, a Botanical Psychedelic and Potential Rapid-Acting Antidepressant. Biomolecules 2022; 12:biom12111618. [DOI: 10.3390/biom12111618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2022] [Revised: 10/27/2022] [Accepted: 10/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Ayahuasca is a psychoactive brew traditionally used in indigenous and religious rituals and ceremonies in South America for its therapeutic, psychedelic, and entheogenic effects. It is usually prepared by lengthy boiling of the leaves of the bush Psychotria viridis and the mashed stalks of the vine Banisteriopsis caapi in water. The former contains the classical psychedelic N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), which is thought to be the main psychoactive alkaloid present in the brew. The latter serves as a source for β-carbolines, known for their monoamine oxidase-inhibiting (MAOI) properties. Recent preliminary research has provided encouraging results investigating ayahuasca’s therapeutic potential, especially regarding its antidepressant effects. On a molecular level, pre-clinical and clinical evidence points to a complex pharmacological profile conveyed by the brew, including modulation of serotoninergic, glutamatergic, dopaminergic, and endocannabinoid systems. Its substances also interact with the vesicular monoamine transporter (VMAT), trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1), and sigma-1 receptors. Furthermore, ayahuasca’s components also seem to modulate levels of inflammatory and neurotrophic factors beneficially. On a biological level, this translates into neuroprotective and neuroplastic effects. Here we review the current knowledge regarding these molecular interactions and how they relate to the possible antidepressant effects ayahuasca seems to produce.
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Politi M, Tresca G, Menghini L, Ferrante C. Beyond the Psychoactive Effects of Ayahuasca: Cultural and Pharmacological Relevance of Its Emetic and Purging Properties. PLANTA MEDICA 2022; 88:1275-1286. [PMID: 34794194 DOI: 10.1055/a-1675-3840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The herbal preparation ayahuasca has been an important part of ritual and healing practices, deployed to access invisible worlds in several indigenous groups in the Amazon basin and among mestizo populations of South America. The preparation is usually known to be composed of two main plants, Banisteriopsis caapi and Psychotria viridis, which produce both hallucinogenic and potent purging and emetic effects; currently, these are considered its major pharmacological activities. In recent decades, the psychoactive and visionary effect of ayahuasca has been highly sought after by the shamanic tourism community, which led to the popularization of ayahuasca use globally and to a cultural distancing from its traditional cosmological meanings, including that of purging and emesis. Further, the field of ethnobotany and ethnopharmacology has also produced relatively limited data linking the phytochemical diversity of ayahuasca with the different degrees of its purging and emetic versus psychoactive effects. Similarly, scientific interest has also principally addressed the psychological and mental health effects of ayahuasca, overlooking the cultural and pharmacological importance of the purging and emetic activity. The aim of this review is therefore to shed light on the understudied purging and emetic effect of ayahuasca herbal preparation. It firstly focuses on reviewing the cultural relevance of emesis and purging in the context of Amazonian traditions. Secondly, on the basis of the main known phytochemicals described in the ayahuasca formula, a comprehensive pharmacological evaluation of their emetic and purging properties is presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matteo Politi
- Department of Pharmacy, Botanic Garden "Giardino dei Semplici", Università degli Studi "Gabriele d'Annunzio", Chieti, Italy
- Research Department, Center for Drug Addiction Treatment and Research on Traditional Medicines - Takiwasi, Tarapoto, Peru
| | - Giorgia Tresca
- Department of Pharmacy, Botanic Garden "Giardino dei Semplici", Università degli Studi "Gabriele d'Annunzio", Chieti, Italy
| | - Luigi Menghini
- Department of Pharmacy, Botanic Garden "Giardino dei Semplici", Università degli Studi "Gabriele d'Annunzio", Chieti, Italy
| | - Claudio Ferrante
- Department of Pharmacy, Botanic Garden "Giardino dei Semplici", Università degli Studi "Gabriele d'Annunzio", Chieti, Italy
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Varani AM, Silva SR, Lopes S, Barbosa JBF, Oliveira D, Corrêa MA, Moraes AP, Miranda VF, Prosdocimi F. The complete organellar genomes of the entheogenic plant Psychotria viridis (Rubiaceae), a main component of the ayahuasca brew. PeerJ 2022; 10:e14114. [PMID: 36275467 PMCID: PMC9586082 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.14114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2022] [Accepted: 09/02/2022] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Psychotria viridis (Rubioideae: Rubiaceae), popularly known as chacrona, is commonly found as a shrub in the Amazon region and is well-known to produce psychoactive compounds, such as the N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT). Together with the liana Banisteropsis caapi, P. viridis is one of the main components of the Amerindian traditional, entheogenic beverage known as ayahuasca. In this work, we assembled and annotated the organellar genomes (ptDNA and mtDNA), presenting the first genomics resources for this species. The P. viridis ptDNA exhibits 154,106 bp, encoding all known ptDNA gene repertoire found in angiosperms. The Psychotria genus is a complex paraphyletic group, and according to phylogenomic analyses, P. viridis is nested in the Psychotrieae clade. Comparative ptDNA analyses indicate that most Rubiaceae plastomes present conserved ptDNA structures, often showing slight differences at the junction sites of the major four regions (LSC-IR-SSC). For the mitochondrion, assembly graph-based analysis supports a complex mtDNA organization, presenting at least two alternative and circular mitogenomes structures exhibiting two main repeats spanning 24 kb and 749 bp that may symmetrically isomerize the mitogenome into variable arrangements and isoforms. The circular mtDNA sequences (615,370 and 570,344 bp) encode almost all plant mitochondrial genes (except for the ccmC, rps7, rps10, rps14, rps19, rpl2 and rpl16 that appears as pseudogenes, and the absent genes sdh3, rps2, rsp4, rsp8, rps11, rpl6, and rpl10), showing slight variations related to exclusive regions, ptDNA integration, and relics of previous events of LTR-RT integration. The detection of two mitogenomes haplotypes is evidence of heteroplasmy as observed by the complex organization of the mitochondrial genome using graph-based analysis. Taken together, these results elicit the primary insights into the genome biology and evolutionary history of Psychotria viridis and may be used to aid strategies for conservation of this sacred, entheogenic species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandro M. Varani
- Department of Agricultural and Environmental Biotechnology, School of Agricultural and Veterinarian Sciences, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Jaboticabal, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Saura R. Silva
- Department of Agricultural and Environmental Biotechnology, School of Agricultural and Veterinarian Sciences, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Jaboticabal, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Simone Lopes
- Laboratory of Genetics and Molecular Biology, State University of Paraíba (UEPB), Campina Grande, Paraíba, Brazil
| | | | - Danilo Oliveira
- Laboratory of Bioprospection and Applied Ethnopharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Maria Alice Corrêa
- Laboratório de Genômica e Biodiversidade, Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Ana Paula Moraes
- Center for Natural Sciences and Humanities, Federal University of ABC (UFABC), São Bernardo do Campo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Vitor F.O. Miranda
- School of Agricultural and Veterinarian Sciences, Department of Biology, São Paulo State University (Unesp), Jaboticabal, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Francisco Prosdocimi
- Laboratório de Genômica e Biodiversidade, Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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Santos BWL, Moreira DC, Borges TKDS, Caldas ED. Components of Banisteriopsis caapi, a Plant Used in the Preparation of the Psychoactive Ayahuasca, Induce Anti-Inflammatory Effects in Microglial Cells. Molecules 2022; 27:2500. [PMID: 35458698 PMCID: PMC9025580 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27082500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2022] [Revised: 04/06/2022] [Accepted: 04/08/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Banisteriopsis caapi is used to prepare the psychoactive beverage ayahuasca, and both have therapeutic potential for the treatment of many central nervous system (CNS) conditions. This study aimed to isolate new bioactive compounds from B. caapi extract and evaluate their biological activity, and that of the known β-carboline components of the plant (harmine, harmaline, and tetrahydroharmine), in BV-2 microglial cells, the in vivo activation of which is implicated in the physiopathology of CNS disorders. B. caapi extract was fractionated using semipreparative liquid chromatography (HPLC-DAD) and the exact masses ([M + H]+m/z) of the compounds in the 5 isolated fractions were determined by high-resolution LC-MS/MS: F1 (174.0918 and 233.1289), F2 (353.1722), F3 (304.3001), F4 (188.1081), and F5 (205.0785). Harmine (75.5-302 µM) significantly decreased cell viability after 2 h of treatment and increased the number of necrotic cells and production of reactive oxygen species at equal or lower concentrations after 24 h. F4 did not impact viability but was also cytotoxic after 24 h. Most treatments reduced proinflammatory cytokine production (IL-2, IL-6, IL-17, and/or TNF), especially harmaline and F5 at 2.5 µM and higher concentrations, tetrahydroharmine (9.3 µM and higher), and F5 (10.7 µM and higher). The results suggest that the compounds found in B. caapi extract have anti-inflammatory potential that could be explored for the development of treatments for neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatriz Werneck Lopes Santos
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Brasilia, Brasilia 70910-900, Brazil;
| | - Daniel Carneiro Moreira
- Research Center in Morphology and Applied Immunology (NuPMIA), Faculty of Medicine, University of Brasilia, Brasilia 70910-900, Brazil; (D.C.M.); (T.K.d.S.B.)
| | - Tatiana Karla dos Santos Borges
- Research Center in Morphology and Applied Immunology (NuPMIA), Faculty of Medicine, University of Brasilia, Brasilia 70910-900, Brazil; (D.C.M.); (T.K.d.S.B.)
| | - Eloisa Dutra Caldas
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Brasilia, Brasilia 70910-900, Brazil;
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Rodríguez L, López A, Moyna G, Seoane GA, Davyt D, Vázquez Á, Hernández G, Carrera I. New Insights into the Chemical Composition of Ayahuasca. ACS OMEGA 2022; 7:12307-12317. [PMID: 35449956 PMCID: PMC9016809 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.2c00795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2022] [Accepted: 03/21/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Ayahuasca is a psychedelic beverage originally from the Amazon rainforest used in different shamanic settings for medicinal, spiritual, and cultural purposes. It is prepared by boiling in water an admixture of the Amazonian vine Banisteriopsis caapi, which is a source of β-carboline alkaloids, with plants containing N,N-dimethyltryptamine, usually Psychotria viridis. While previous studies have focused on the detection and quantification of the alkaloids present in the drink, less attention has been given to other nonalkaloid components or the composition of the solids suspended in the beverage, which may also affect its psychoactive properties. In this study, we used nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry/mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) to study the composition of ayahuasca samples, to determine their alkaloid qualitative and quantitative profiles, as well as other major soluble and nonsoluble components. For the first time, fructose was detected as a major component of the samples, while harmine (a β-carboline previously described as an abundant alkaloid in ayahuasca) was found to be present in the solids suspended in the beverage. In addition, N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), harmine, tetrahydroharmine, harmaline, and harmol were identified as the major alkaloids present in extracts of all samples. Finally, a novel, easy, and fast method using quantitative NMR was developed and validated to simultaneously quantify the content of these alkaloids found in each ayahuasca sample.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luisina Rodríguez
- Laboratorio
de Farmacognosia, Departamento de Química Orgánica, Universidad de la República, Avenue General Flores 2124, Montevideo 11800, Uruguay
- Laboratorio
de Síntesis Orgánica, Departamento de Química
Orgánica, Universidad de la República, Avenue General Flores 2124, Montevideo 11800, Uruguay
- Arché-
Núcleo Interdisciplinario de Estudios sobre Psicodélicos-
Espacio Interdisciplinario, Universidad
de la República, José Enrique Rodó 1843, Montevideo 11200, Uruguay
| | - Andrés López
- Departamento
de Química del Litoral, Centro Universitario Regional Litoral
Norte, Universidad de la República, Ruta 3, km 363, Paysandú 60000, Uruguay
| | - Guillermo Moyna
- Departamento
de Química del Litoral, Centro Universitario Regional Litoral
Norte, Universidad de la República, Ruta 3, km 363, Paysandú 60000, Uruguay
| | - Gustavo A. Seoane
- Laboratorio
de Síntesis Orgánica, Departamento de Química
Orgánica, Universidad de la República, Avenue General Flores 2124, Montevideo 11800, Uruguay
- Arché-
Núcleo Interdisciplinario de Estudios sobre Psicodélicos-
Espacio Interdisciplinario, Universidad
de la República, José Enrique Rodó 1843, Montevideo 11200, Uruguay
| | - Danilo Davyt
- Laboratorio
de Química Farmacéutica, Departamento de Química
Orgánica, Universidad de la República, Avenue General Flores 2124, Montevideo 11800, Uruguay
| | - Álvaro Vázquez
- Laboratorio
de Farmacognosia, Departamento de Química Orgánica, Universidad de la República, Avenue General Flores 2124, Montevideo 11800, Uruguay
- Arché-
Núcleo Interdisciplinario de Estudios sobre Psicodélicos-
Espacio Interdisciplinario, Universidad
de la República, José Enrique Rodó 1843, Montevideo 11200, Uruguay
| | - Gonzalo Hernández
- Laboratorio
de Resonancia Magnética Nuclear, Departamento de Química
Orgánica, Universidad de la República, Avenue General Flores 2124, Montevideo 11800, Uruguay
| | - Ignacio Carrera
- Laboratorio
de Síntesis Orgánica, Departamento de Química
Orgánica, Universidad de la República, Avenue General Flores 2124, Montevideo 11800, Uruguay
- Arché-
Núcleo Interdisciplinario de Estudios sobre Psicodélicos-
Espacio Interdisciplinario, Universidad
de la República, José Enrique Rodó 1843, Montevideo 11200, Uruguay
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Nižnanský Ľ, Nižnanská Ž, Kuruc R, Szórádová A, Šikuta J, Zummerová A. Ayahuasca as a Decoction Applied to Human: Analytical Methods, Pharmacology and Potential Toxic Effects. J Clin Med 2022; 11:1147. [PMID: 35207420 PMCID: PMC8880227 DOI: 10.3390/jcm11041147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2021] [Revised: 01/28/2022] [Accepted: 02/19/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Ahyahuasca is a term commonly used to describe a decoction prepared by cooking the bark or crushed stems of the liana Banisteriopsis caapi (contains β-carbolines) alone or in combination with other plants, most commonly leaves of the shrub Psychotria viridis (contains N,N-dimethyltryptamine-DMT). More than 100 different plants can serve as sources of β-carbolines and DMT, which are the active alkaloids of this decoction, and therefore it is important to know the most accurate composition of the decoction, especially when studying the pharmacology of this plant. The aim was to summarize the latest sensitive methods used in the analysis of the composition of the beverage itself and the analysis of various biological matrices. We compared pharmacokinetic parameters in all of the studies where decoction of ayahuasca was administered and where its composition was known, whereby minimal adverse effects were observed. The therapeutic benefit of this plant is still unclear in the scientific literature, and side effects occur probably on the basis of pre-existing psychiatric disorder. We also described toxicological risks and clinical benefits of ayahuasca intake, which meant that the concentrations of active alkaloids in the decoction or in the organism, often not determined in publications, were required for sufficient evaluation of its effect on the organism. We did not find any post-mortem study, in which the toxicological examination of biological materials together with the autopsy findings would suggest potential lethality of this plant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ľuboš Nižnanský
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Health Care Surveillance Authority, Antolská 11, 85107 Bratislava, Slovakia; (R.K.); (A.S.); (J.Š.); (A.Z.)
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University in Bratislava, Sasinková 4, 81108 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Žofia Nižnanská
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Health Care Surveillance Authority, Antolská 11, 85107 Bratislava, Slovakia; (R.K.); (A.S.); (J.Š.); (A.Z.)
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University in Bratislava, Sasinková 4, 81108 Bratislava, Slovakia
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University in Bratislava, Mlynská Dolina, Ilkovičova 6, 84215 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Roman Kuruc
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Health Care Surveillance Authority, Antolská 11, 85107 Bratislava, Slovakia; (R.K.); (A.S.); (J.Š.); (A.Z.)
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University in Bratislava, Sasinková 4, 81108 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Andrea Szórádová
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Health Care Surveillance Authority, Antolská 11, 85107 Bratislava, Slovakia; (R.K.); (A.S.); (J.Š.); (A.Z.)
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University in Bratislava, Sasinková 4, 81108 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Ján Šikuta
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Health Care Surveillance Authority, Antolská 11, 85107 Bratislava, Slovakia; (R.K.); (A.S.); (J.Š.); (A.Z.)
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University in Bratislava, Sasinková 4, 81108 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Anežka Zummerová
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Health Care Surveillance Authority, Antolská 11, 85107 Bratislava, Slovakia; (R.K.); (A.S.); (J.Š.); (A.Z.)
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University in Bratislava, Sasinková 4, 81108 Bratislava, Slovakia
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Bouso JC, Andión Ó, Sarris JJ, Scheidegger M, Tófoli LF, Opaleye ES, Schubert V, Perkins D. Adverse effects of ayahuasca: Results from the Global Ayahuasca Survey. PLOS GLOBAL PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 2:e0000438. [PMID: 36962494 PMCID: PMC10021266 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgph.0000438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2021] [Accepted: 10/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Ayahuasca is a plant-based decoction native to Amazonia, where it has a long history of use in traditional medicine. Contemporary ritual use of ayahuasca has been expanding throughout the world for mental health purposes, and for spiritual and personal growth. Although researchers have been conducting clinical trials and observational studies reporting medical and psychological benefits, most of these do not report ayahuasca's immediate or medium-term adverse effects, so these are underrepresented in the literature. With the expansion of ayahuasca ceremonies from their traditional contexts to countries around the world, there is an important public health question regarding the risk/benefit balance of its use. METHODS We used data from an online Global Ayahuasca Survey (n = 10,836) collected between 2017 and 2019 involving participants from more than 50 countries. Principal component analysis was performed to assess group effects. Logistic regression analysis was performed to test for adverse effects associated with history of ayahuasca use, clinical, context of use and spiritual effect variables. RESULTS Acute physical health adverse effects (primarily vomiting) were reported by 69.9% of the sample, with 2.3% reporting the need for subsequent medical attention. Adverse mental health effects in the weeks or months following consumption were reported by 55.9% of the sample, however, around 88% considered such mental health effects as part of a positive process of growth or integration. Around 12% sought professional support for these effects. Physical adverse effects were related to older age at initial use of ayahuasca, having a physical health condition, higher lifetime and last year ayahuasca use, having a previous substance use disorder diagnosis, and taking ayahuasca in a non-supervised context. Mental health adverse effects were positively associated with anxiety disorders; physical health conditions; and the strength of the acute spiritual experience; and negatively associated with consumption in religious settings. CONCLUSIONS While there is a high rate of adverse physical effects and challenging psychological effects from using ayahuasca, they are not generally severe, and most ayahuasca ceremony attendees continue to attend ceremonies, suggesting they perceive the benefits as outweighing any adverse effects. Knowing what variables might predict eventual adverse effects may serve in screening of, or providing additional support for, vulnerable subjects. Improved understanding of the ayahuasca risk/benefit balance can also assist policy makers in decisions regarding potential regulation and public health responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Carlos Bouso
- International Center for Ethnobotanical Education, Research and Services (ICEERS), Barcelona, Spain
- Medical Anthropology Research Center, Department of Anthropology, Philosophy and Social Work, University of Rovira I Virgili, Tarragona, Spain
- Department of Neurosciences and Behavior, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Óscar Andión
- Research Sherpas, Mieres (Olot), Sabadell, Spain
| | - Jerome J Sarris
- Psychae Institute, Melbourne, Australia
- NICM Health Research Institute, Western Sydney University, Westmead, Australia
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The Melbourne Clinic Professorial Unit, Department of Psychiatry, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Milan Scheidegger
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy, and Psychosomatics, University Hospital of Psychiatry Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Luís Fernando Tófoli
- Interdisciplinary Cooperation for Ayahuasca Research and Outreach (ICARO), School of Medical Sciences, University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
| | | | - Violeta Schubert
- School of Social and Political Science, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Daniel Perkins
- Psychae Institute, Melbourne, Australia
- School of Social and Political Science, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
- School of Population and Global Health, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
- Centre for Mental Health, Swinburne University, Melbourne, Australia
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