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Alimi R, Fisher E, Nahir K. In Situ Underwater Localization of Magnetic Sensors Using Natural Computing Algorithms. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:s23041797. [PMID: 36850395 PMCID: PMC9966058 DOI: 10.3390/s23041797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2022] [Revised: 01/29/2023] [Accepted: 02/01/2023] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
In the shallow water regime, several positioning methods for locating underwater magnetometers have been investigated. These studies are based on either computer simulations or downscaled laboratory experiments. The magnetic fields created at the sensors' locations define an inverse problem in which the sensors' precise coordinates are the unknown variables. This work addresses the issue through (1) a full-scale experimental setup that provides a thorough scientific perspective as well as real-world system validation and (2) a passive ferromagnetic source with (3) an unknown magnetic vector. The latter increases the numeric solution's complexity. Eight magnetometers are arranged according to a 2.5 × 2.5 m grid. Six meters above, a ferromagnetic object moves according to a well-defined path and velocity. The magnetic field recorded by the network is then analyzed by two natural computing algorithms: the genetic algorithm (GA) and particle swarm optimizer (PSO). Single- and multi-objective versions are run and compared. All the methods performed very well and were able to determine the location of the sensors within a relative error of 1 to 3%. The absolute error lies between 20 and 35 cm for the close and far sensors, respectively. The multi-objective versions performed better.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roger Alimi
- Technology Division, Soreq NRC, Yavne 81800, Israel
- Correspondence:
| | - Elad Fisher
- Technology Division, Soreq NRC, Yavne 81800, Israel
- Hatter Department of Marine Technologies, University of Haifa, Haifa 3498838, Israel
| | - Kanna Nahir
- Technology Division, Soreq NRC, Yavne 81800, Israel
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EE-UWSNs: A Joint Energy-Efficient MAC and Routing Protocol for Underwater Sensor Networks. JOURNAL OF MARINE SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/jmse10040488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
In Underwater Sensor Networks (UWSNs), the energy sources of sensor nodes are limited and difficult to recharge and solar energy cannot be used in that environment. The power issue is one of the most significant constraints in underwater sensor networks and energy balancing is essential to prolong the network lifetime. The MAC/routing protocols that are used in other types of networks may not be suitable for UWSNs due to their unique characteristics. This paper aims to overcome the energy problem by developing a new MAC/routing protocol for UWSNs called the Energy-Efficient protocol for UWSNs (EE-UWSNs). It is based on five principles to save sensor energy and to prolong the lifetime of UWSNs. These principles are using finite levels of power, applying the multi-hops transmission, narrowing the scope of transmission, applying inactivation mode, and balancing energy consumption. Using the AUVNetSim simulator, which is a Python project developed by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), the proposed EE-UWSNs protocol was compared with well-known protocols. Simulation results proved that the proposed protocol reduces the average energy consumption of sensors by up to 68.49% compared with the other protocols. Furthermore, the average number of collisions and the end-to-end delay are enhanced.
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Chen D, Cui H, Welsch RE. An Adaptive Routing Algorithm Based on Relation Tree in DTN. SENSORS 2021; 21:s21237847. [PMID: 34883854 PMCID: PMC8659922 DOI: 10.3390/s21237847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2021] [Revised: 11/23/2021] [Accepted: 11/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
It is found that nodes in Delay Tolerant Networks (DTN) exhibit stable social attributes similar to those of people. In this paper, an adaptive routing algorithm based on Relation Tree (AR-RT) for DTN is proposed. Each node constructs its own Relation Tree based on the historical encounter frequency, and will adopt different forwarding strategies based on the Relation Tree in the forwarding phase, so as to achieve more targeted forwarding. To further improve the scalability of the algorithm, the source node dynamically controls the initial maximum number of message copies according to its own cache occupancy, which enables the node to make negative feedback to network environment changes. Simulation results show that the AR-RT algorithm proposed in this paper has significant advantages over existing routing algorithms in terms of average delay, average hop count, and message delivery rate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diyue Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Networking and Switching Technology, Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Beijing 100876, China;
- Beijing Laboratory of Advanced Information Networks, Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Beijing 100876, China
| | - Hongyan Cui
- State Key Laboratory of Networking and Switching Technology, Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Beijing 100876, China;
- Beijing Laboratory of Advanced Information Networks, Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Beijing 100876, China
- Correspondence:
| | - Roy E. Welsch
- Sloan School of Management and Center for Statistics and Data Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA;
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Energy-Efficient Collision Avoidance MAC Protocols for Underwater Sensor Networks: Survey and Challenges. JOURNAL OF MARINE SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/jmse9070741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The Medium Access Control (MAC) layer protocol is the most important part of any network, and is considered to be a fundamental protocol that aids in enhancing the performance of networks and communications. However, the MAC protocol’s design for underwater sensor networks (UWSNs) has introduced various challenges. This is due to long underwater acoustic propagation delay, high mobility, low available bandwidth, and high error probability. These unique acoustic channel characteristics make contention-based MAC protocols significantly more expensive than other protocol contentions. Therefore, re-transmission and collisions should effectively be managed at the MAC layer to decrease the energy cost and to enhance the network’s throughput. Consequently, handshake-based and random access-based MAC protocols do not perform as efficiently as their achieved performance in terrestrial networks. To tackle this complicated problem, this paper surveys the current collision-free MAC protocols proposed in the literature for UWSNs. We first review the unique characteristic of underwater sensor networks and its negative impact on the MAC layer. It is then followed by a discussion about the problem definition, challenges, and features associated with the design of MAC protocols in UWANs. Afterwards, currently available collision-free MAC design strategies in UWSNs are classified and investigated. The advantages and disadvantages of each design strategy along with the recent advances are then presented. Finally, we present a qualitative comparison of these strategies and also discuss some possible future directions.
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Fattah S, Gani A, Ahmedy I, Idris MYI, Targio Hashem IA. A Survey on Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks: Requirements, Taxonomy, Recent Advances, and Open Research Challenges. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2020; 20:E5393. [PMID: 32967124 PMCID: PMC7570626 DOI: 10.3390/s20185393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Revised: 09/02/2020] [Accepted: 09/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The domain of underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs) had received a lot of attention recently due to its significant advanced capabilities in the ocean surveillance, marine monitoring and application deployment for detecting underwater targets. However, the literature have not compiled the state-of-the-art along its direction to discover the recent advancements which were fuelled by the underwater sensor technologies. Hence, this paper offers the newest analysis on the available evidences by reviewing studies in the past five years on various aspects that support network activities and applications in UWSN environments. This work was motivated by the need for robust and flexible solutions that can satisfy the requirements for the rapid development of the underwater wireless sensor networks. This paper identifies the key requirements for achieving essential services as well as common platforms for UWSN. It also contributes a taxonomy of the critical elements in UWSNs by devising a classification on architectural elements, communications, routing protocol and standards, security, and applications of UWSNs. Finally, the major challenges that remain open are presented as a guide for future research directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salmah Fattah
- Department of Computer System and Technology, Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology, University of Malaya (UM), Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia or (S.F.); (I.A.); (M.Y.I.I.)
- Faculty of Computing and Informatics, Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS), Kota Kinabalu 88400, Sabah, Malaysia
| | - Abdullah Gani
- Department of Computer System and Technology, Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology, University of Malaya (UM), Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia or (S.F.); (I.A.); (M.Y.I.I.)
- Faculty of Computing and Informatics, Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS), Kota Kinabalu 88400, Sabah, Malaysia
| | - Ismail Ahmedy
- Department of Computer System and Technology, Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology, University of Malaya (UM), Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia or (S.F.); (I.A.); (M.Y.I.I.)
| | - Mohd Yamani Idna Idris
- Department of Computer System and Technology, Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology, University of Malaya (UM), Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia or (S.F.); (I.A.); (M.Y.I.I.)
| | - Ibrahim Abaker Targio Hashem
- College of Computing and Informatics, Department of Computer Science, University of Sharjah, Sharjah 27272, UAE;
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Hardware Acceleration for RLNC: A Case Study Based on the Xtensa Processor with the Tensilica Instruction-Set Extension. ELECTRONICS 2018. [DOI: 10.3390/electronics7090180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Random linear network coding (RLNC) can greatly aid data transmission in lossy wireless networks. However, RLNC requires computationally complex matrix multiplications and inversions in finite fields (Galois fields). These computations are highly demanding for energy-constrained mobile devices. The presented case study evaluates hardware acceleration strategies for RLNC in the context of the Tensilica Xtensa LX5 processor with the tensilica instruction set extension (TIE). More specifically, we develop TIEs for multiply-accumulate (MAC) operations for accelerating matrix multiplications in Galois fields, single instruction multiple data (SIMD) instructions operating on consecutive memory locations, as well as the flexible-length instruction extension (FLIX). We evaluate the number of clock cycles required for RLNC encoding and decoding without and with the MAC, SIMD, and FLIX acceleration strategies. We also evaluate the RLNC encoding and decoding throughput and energy consumption for a range of RLNC generation and code word sizes. We find that for GF ( 2 8 ) and GF ( 2 16 ) RLNC encoding, the SIMD and FLIX acceleration strategies achieve speedups of approximately four hundred fold compared to a benchmark C code implementation without TIE. We also find that the unicore Xtensa LX5 with SIMD has seven to thirty times higher RLNC encoding and decoding throughput than the state-of-the-art ODROID XU3 system-on-a-chip (SoC) operating with a single core; the Xtensa LX5 with FLIX, in turn, increases the throughput by roughly 25% compared to utilizing only SIMD. Furthermore, the Xtensa LX5 with FLIX consumes roughly four orders of magnitude less energy than the ODROID XU3 SoC.
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Amanowicz M, Krygier J. On Applicability of Network Coding Technique for 6LoWPAN-based Sensor Networks. SENSORS 2018; 18:s18061718. [PMID: 29861436 PMCID: PMC6021915 DOI: 10.3390/s18061718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2018] [Revised: 05/19/2018] [Accepted: 05/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
In this paper, the applicability of the network coding technique in 6LoWPAN-based sensor multihop networks is examined. The 6LoWPAN is one of the standards proposed for the Internet of Things architecture. Thus, we can expect the significant growth of traffic in such networks, which can lead to overload and decrease in the sensor network lifetime. The authors propose the inter-session network coding mechanism that can be implemented in resource-limited sensor motes. The solution reduces the overall traffic in the network, and in consequence, the energy consumption is decreased. Used procedures take into account deep header compressions of the native 6LoWPAN packets and the hop-by-hop changes of the header structure. Applied simplifications reduce signaling traffic that is typically occurring in network coding deployments, keeping the solution usefulness for the wireless sensor networks with limited resources. The authors validate the proposed procedures in terms of end-to-end packet delay, packet loss ratio, traffic in the air, total energy consumption, and network lifetime. The solution has been tested in a real wireless sensor network. The results confirm the efficiency of the proposed technique, mostly in delay-tolerant sensor networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marek Amanowicz
- NASK-National Research Institute, Kolska 12, Warsaw 01-045, Poland.
| | - Jaroslaw Krygier
- Faculty of Electronics, Military University of Technology, Urbanowicza 2, Warsaw 00-908, Poland.
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