A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the Differences in Mean Propulsive Velocity between Men and Women in Different Exercises

Are There Differences Between Sexes in Performance-Related Variables During a Maximal Intermittent Flywheel Test?

BACKGROUND

Isometric and dynamic tasks of low-to-moderate intensities have been used to study sex differences in fatigability; however, maximal exertions with flywheel devices (FDs) have not been used. This study aimed to (1) detect sex differences in fatigue-related performance in a maximal intermittent fatiguing protocol on a FD, and (2) investigate the most sensitive dynamometric and mechanical variables for assessing fatigue in both sexes.

HYPOTHESIS

No sex differences should exist when performing this protocol on a FD.

STUDY DESIGN

Cohort observational study.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level 3.

METHODS

A total of 34 young adults (17 female/17 male) performed 10 sets of 10 repetitions with 3 minutes of passive recovery of a half-squat exercise on a FD. Inter- and intraset analysis of force, power, velocity, work, and impulse, together with their relative change and slope, were calculated during concentric and eccentric phases. Raw data were also normalized to body mass in the interset analysis. The relative changes in each variable were compared.

RESULTS

Men showed greater and earlier decreases in performance throughout sets (P < .05; ηp2 ≥ 0.08), but these differences were not consistent after normalization for body mass (P > .05; ηp2 ≤ 0.05). Irrespective of sex and phase, the intraset analysis revealed that relative change was higher in the last set (P ≤ .03; ηp2 ≥ 0.14), with power being the most sensitive variable for detecting performance decline (P ≤ .04; ηp2 = 0.49).

CONCLUSION

Women experienced slower and delayed fatigue kinetics than men during a maximal intermittent fatiguing protocol with FD if body dimensionality is not considered. For training purposes, power seems to be the most sensitive and discriminative variable for detecting decreases in performance.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Body dimensionality is a key factor that must be considered when comparing both sexes in FDs.

A Comparison of Three Protocols for Determining Barbell Bench Press Single Repetition Maximum, Barbell Kinetics, and Subsequent Measures of Muscular Performance in Resistance-Trained Adults

BACKGROUND

One repetition maximum (1RM) is a vital metric for exercise professionals, but various testing protocols exist, and their impacts on the resulting 1RM, barbell kinetics, and subsequent muscular performance testing are not well understood. This study aimed to compare two previously established protocols and a novel self-led method for determining bench press 1RM, 1RM barbell kinetics, and subsequent muscular performance measures.

METHODS

Twenty-four resistance-trained males (n = 12, 24 ± 6.1 years) and females (n = 12, 22.5 ± 5.5 years) completed three laboratory visits in a randomized crossover fashion. During each visit, a 1RM was established using one of the three protocols followed by a single set to volitional fatigue using 80% of their 1RM. A Sex:Protocol repeated measures ANOVA was used to determine the effects of sex and differences between protocols.

RESULTS

No significant differences were observed between the protocols for any measure, except for 1RM peak power (p = 0.036). Post hoc pairwise comparisons failed to identify any differences. Males showed significantly higher 1RM, average, and peak power (ps < 0.001), while females demonstrated a greater average concentric velocity (p = 0.031) at 1RM.

CONCLUSIONS

These data suggest the protocol used to establish 1RM may have minimal impact on the final 1RM, 1RM barbell kinetics, and subsequent muscular endurance in a laboratory setting.

The Autoregulation Rest-Redistribution Training Method Mitigates Sex Differences in Neuromuscular and Perceived Fatigue During Resistance Training

PURPOSE

To examine the sex differences in performance and perceived fatigue during resistance training prescribed using traditional (TRA) and autoregulation rest-redistribution training (ARRT) approaches.

METHODS

Twelve resistance-trained men and 12 women completed 2 sessions including the bench-press exercise matched for load (75% of 1-repetition maximum), volume (24 repetitions), and total rest (240 s). Sessions were performed in a counterbalanced randomized design with TRA consisting of 3 sets of 8 repetitions with 120-second interset rest and ARRT employing a personalized combination of clusters, repetitions per cluster, and between-clusters rest regulated with a 20% velocity-loss threshold. The effects of TRA and ARRT on velocity loss, unilateral isometric peak force, and rating of fatigue (ROF) were compared between sexes.

RESULTS

The velocity loss was generally lower during ARRT compared with TRA (-0.47% [0.11%]), with velocity loss being mitigated by ARRT to a greater extent among males compared with females (-0.37% [0.15%]). A smaller unilateral isometric peak force decline was observed after ARRT than TRA among males compared with females (-38.4 [8.4] N). Lower ROF after ARRT than TRA was found among males compared to females (-1.97 [0.55] AU). Additionally, males reported greater ROF than females across both conditions (1.92 [0.53] AU), and ARRT resulted in lower ROF than TRA overall (-0.83 [0.39] AU).

CONCLUSIONS

The ARRT approach resulted in decreased velocity loss, peak force impairment, and ROF compared with TRA in both sexes. However, male subjects exhibited more pronounced acute within-session benefits from the ARRT method.

Sex-related differences in the load-velocity and load-power relationships of the decline bench press exercise

The purpose of this study was to analyse the load-velocity and load-power relationships of the decline bench press exercise (DBPE) and to compare sex-related differences. Twelve young healthy men and women performed a progressive loading test for the determination of 1RM strength and individual load-velocity and load-power relationship in the DBPE. A very close relationship between mean propulsive velocity (MPV) and %1RM was observed (R2 = 0.94). This relationship improved when plotting data separately by sex (R2 = 0.96-97). Individual load-velocity profiles gave an R2 = 0.99 ± 0.01. The relationship between mean propulsive power (MPP) and %1RM was R2 = 0.23. When separating data by sex, R2 = 0.64-73 were obtained. Individual load-power profiles gave an R2 of 0.93 ± 0.07. Significant sex-related differences were found for MPV, with males having faster velocities than females from 30% to 40% 1RM (p = 0.01) and for MPP, with males having greater MPP (W) than females from 30% to 95% 1RM (p < 0.001). The results of this study show that a strong correlation exists between relative load and MPV/MPP in the DBPE, allowing the possibility of using one to predict the other with great precision, especially when a sex-specific equation is used.

Sex Differences in the Ergogenic Response of Acute Caffeine Intake on Muscular Strength, Power and Endurance Performance in Resistance-Trained Individuals: A Randomized Controlled Trial

BACKGROUND

This study assessed the impact of acute caffeine intake on muscular strength, power, and endurance performance between resistance-trained male and female individuals according to load in upper- and lower-body exercises.

METHODS

Here, 76 resistance-trained individuals (38 females, 38 males) participated in a study comparing caffeine and a placebo. Each received either 3 mg/kg of caffeine or a placebo 60 min before tests measuring muscular strength and power through bench press and back squat exercises at different intensities (25%, 50%, 75%, 90% 1RM). Muscular endurance at 65% 1RM was also assessed by performing reps until reaching task failure.

RESULTS

Compared to placebo, caffeine increased mean, peak and time to reach peak velocity and power output (p < 0.01, ηp2 = 0.242-0.293) in the muscular strength/power test in males and females. This effect was particularly observed in the back squat exercise at 50%, 75% and 90% 1RM (2.5-8.5%, p < 0.05, g = 1.0-2.4). For muscular endurance, caffeine increased the number of repetitions, mean velocity and power output (p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.177-0.255) in both sexes and exercises (3.0-8.9%, p < 0.05, g = 0.15-0.33).

CONCLUSIONS

Acute caffeine intake resulted in a similar ergogenic effect on muscular strength, power, and endurance performance in upper- and lower-body exercises for male and female resistance-trained participants.

Sex differences in the determination of prescribed load in ballistic bench press

Introduction: The objectives of the present study were twofold: first, to identify the specific relative load at which the concentric motion transforms into a purely propulsive action among women, and second, to compare the load-velocity relationships between men and women during the bench press throw. Methods: Fourteen men and fourteen women participated in a test where they progressively increased the load until reaching their one-repetition maximum (1RM) in the bench press exercise. Linear regression models were employed to elucidate the relationships between load and velocity, as well as load and the propulsive phase (% of total concentric time). Additionally, ANCOVA was utilized to compare the linear regression models between men and women. Results: The results revealed strong and linear associations between load and mean propulsive velocity (MPV) for both men and women, as well as between load and the propulsive phase. Notably, there were significant differences in MPV and the propulsive phase concerning load between men and women. Women transitioned into a fully propulsive concentric phase at approximately 80% of their 1RM, while men achieved this entirely propulsive phase at around 85% of their 1RM. Furthermore, women exhibited reduced velocities when handling lighter relative loads compared to men. Conversely, women demonstrated higher velocities when dealing with loads exceeding 85% of their 1RM in contrast to their male counterparts. Discussion: These findings hold notable implications for prescribing bench press throw loads for women, which should differ from those recommended for men. Further studies are necessary to validate the efficacy of the proposed load recommendations.

Sex Differences in the Load-Velocity Profiles of Three Different Row Exercises

This study examined the force-velocity profile differences between men and women in three variations of row exercises. Twenty-eight participants (14 men and 14 women) underwent maximum dynamic strength assessments in the free prone bench row (PBR), bent-over barbell row (BBOR), and Smith machine bent-over row (SMBOR) in a randomized order. Subjects performed a progressive loading test from 30 to 100% of 1-RM (repetition maximum), and the mean propulsive velocity was measured in all attempts. Linear regression analyses were conducted to establish the relationships between the different measures of bar velocity and % 1-RM. The ANOVAs applied to the mean velocity achieved in each % 1-RM tested revealed significantly higher velocity values for loads < 65% 1-RM in SMBOR compared to BBOR (p < 0.05) and higher velocities for loads < 90% 1-RM in SMBOR compared to PBR (p < 0.05) for both sexes. Furthermore, men provided significantly higher velocity values than women (PBR 55-100% 1-RM; BBOR and SMBOR < 85% 1-RM; p < 0.05) and significant differences were found between exercises and sex for 30-40% 1-RM. These results confirm that men have higher velocities at different relative loads (i.e., % 1-RM) compared to women during upper-body rowing exercises.