1
|
Khan R. Mycotoxins in food: Occurrence, health implications, and control strategies-A comprehensive review. Toxicon 2024; 248:108038. [PMID: 39047955 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2024.108038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2024] [Revised: 06/14/2024] [Accepted: 07/18/2024] [Indexed: 07/27/2024]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by various filamentous fungi, including Aspergillus, Fusarium, Penicillium, Alternaria, Claviceps, Mucor, Trichoderma, Trichothecium, Myrothecium, Pyrenophora, and Stachybotrys. They can contaminate various plants or animal foods, resulting in a significant loss of nutritional and commercial value. Several factors contribute to mycotoxin production, such as humidity, temperature, oxygen levels, fungal species, and substrate. When contaminated food is consumed by animals and humans, mycotoxins are rapidly absorbed, affecting the liver, and causing metabolic disorders. The detrimental effects on humans and animals include reduced food intake and milk production, reduced fertility, increased risk of abortion, impaired immune response, and increased occurrence of diseases. Therefore, it is imperative to implement strategies for mycotoxin control, broadly classified as preventing fungal contamination and detoxifying their toxic compounds. This review aims to discuss various aspects of mycotoxins, including their occurrence, and risk potential. Additionally, it provides an overview of mycotoxin detoxification strategies, including the use of mycotoxin absorbents, as potential techniques to eliminate or mitigate the harmful effects of mycotoxins and masked mycotoxins on human and animal health while preserving the nutritional and commercial value of affected food products.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rahim Khan
- Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, 43300, Malaysia.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Khan R, Anwar F, Ghazali FM. A comprehensive review of mycotoxins: Toxicology, detection, and effective mitigation approaches. Heliyon 2024; 10:e28361. [PMID: 38628751 PMCID: PMC11019184 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e28361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2023] [Revised: 01/19/2024] [Accepted: 01/21/2024] [Indexed: 04/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins, harmful compounds produced by fungal pathogens, pose a severe threat to food safety and consumer health. Some commonly produced mycotoxins such as aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, fumonisins, trichothecenes, zearalenone, and patulin have serious health implications in humans and animals. Mycotoxin contamination is particularly concerning in regions heavily reliant on staple foods like grains, cereals, and nuts. Preventing mycotoxin contamination is crucial for a sustainable food supply. Chromatographic methods like thin layer chromatography (TLC), gas chromatography (GC), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and liquid chromatography coupled with a mass spectrometer (LC/MS), are commonly used to detect mycotoxins; however, there is a need for on-site, rapid, and cost-effective detection methods. Currently, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA), lateral flow assays (LFAs), and biosensors are becoming popular analytical tools for rapid detection. Meanwhile, preventing mycotoxin contamination is crucial for food safety and a sustainable food supply. Physical, chemical, and biological approaches have been used to inhibit fungal growth and mycotoxin production. However, new strains resistant to conventional methods have led to the exploration of novel strategies like cold atmospheric plasma (CAP) technology, polyphenols and flavonoids, magnetic materials and nanoparticles, and natural essential oils (NEOs). This paper reviews recent scientific research on mycotoxin toxicity, explores advancements in detecting mycotoxins in various foods, and evaluates the effectiveness of innovative mitigation strategies for controlling and detoxifying mycotoxins.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rahim Khan
- Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, UPM, Serdang, Malaysia
| | - Farooq Anwar
- Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, UPM, Serdang, Malaysia
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, 40100, Pakistan
| | - Farinazleen Mohamad Ghazali
- Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, UPM, Serdang, Malaysia
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Galluzzo FG, Cammilleri G, Pulvirenti A, Mannino E, Pantano L, Calabrese V, Buscemi MD, Messina EMD, Alfano C, Macaluso A, Ferrantelli V. Determination of Mycotoxins in Plant-Based Meat Alternatives (PBMAs) and Ingredients after Microwave Cooking. Foods 2024; 13:339. [PMID: 38275706 PMCID: PMC10815609 DOI: 10.3390/foods13020339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2023] [Revised: 01/10/2024] [Accepted: 01/20/2024] [Indexed: 01/27/2024] Open
Abstract
In this study, we investigate the role of microwave cooking in reducing mycotoxin contamination in plant-based food matrices, with a focus on veggie burgers (purchased and home-made) and their ingredients (soybean, potatoes, zucchini, carrots). Two different conditions were studied (Max-Min) that were 800 W for 60 s and 800 W for 90 s, respectively. The degradation patterns of aflatoxins (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2), fumonisins (FB1, FB2, FB3), trichothecenes (T2, HT2, ZEA), and ochratoxin A (OTA) were studied. The extraction procedures were conducted with the QuEChERS extraction, and the analyses were conducted with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Principal component analysis (PCA) showed that degradation under microwave cooking varies considerably across different food matrices and cooking conditions. This study provides valuable insights into the degradation of mycotoxins during microwave cooking and underscores the need for more research in this area to ensure food safety.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Giuseppe Galluzzo
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia “A. Mirri”, 90129 Palermo, Italy; (G.C.); (E.M.); (M.D.B.); (E.M.D.M.); (C.A.); (A.M.); (V.F.)
- Dipartimento Scienze della Vita, Università Degli Studi di Modena e Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy;
| | - Gaetano Cammilleri
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia “A. Mirri”, 90129 Palermo, Italy; (G.C.); (E.M.); (M.D.B.); (E.M.D.M.); (C.A.); (A.M.); (V.F.)
| | - Andrea Pulvirenti
- Dipartimento Scienze della Vita, Università Degli Studi di Modena e Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy;
| | - Erika Mannino
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia “A. Mirri”, 90129 Palermo, Italy; (G.C.); (E.M.); (M.D.B.); (E.M.D.M.); (C.A.); (A.M.); (V.F.)
| | - Licia Pantano
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia “A. Mirri”, 90129 Palermo, Italy; (G.C.); (E.M.); (M.D.B.); (E.M.D.M.); (C.A.); (A.M.); (V.F.)
| | - Vittorio Calabrese
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche e Biotecnologiche, Università degli studi di Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy;
| | - Maria Drussilla Buscemi
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia “A. Mirri”, 90129 Palermo, Italy; (G.C.); (E.M.); (M.D.B.); (E.M.D.M.); (C.A.); (A.M.); (V.F.)
| | - Elisa Maria Domenica Messina
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia “A. Mirri”, 90129 Palermo, Italy; (G.C.); (E.M.); (M.D.B.); (E.M.D.M.); (C.A.); (A.M.); (V.F.)
| | - Calogero Alfano
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia “A. Mirri”, 90129 Palermo, Italy; (G.C.); (E.M.); (M.D.B.); (E.M.D.M.); (C.A.); (A.M.); (V.F.)
| | - Andrea Macaluso
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia “A. Mirri”, 90129 Palermo, Italy; (G.C.); (E.M.); (M.D.B.); (E.M.D.M.); (C.A.); (A.M.); (V.F.)
| | - Vincenzo Ferrantelli
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia “A. Mirri”, 90129 Palermo, Italy; (G.C.); (E.M.); (M.D.B.); (E.M.D.M.); (C.A.); (A.M.); (V.F.)
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Peng Z, Zhang Y, Ai Z, Pandiselvam R, Guo J, Kothakota A, Liu Y. Current physical techniques for the degradation of aflatoxins in food and feed: Safety evaluation methods, degradation mechanisms and products. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2023; 22:4030-4052. [PMID: 37306549 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.13197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2022] [Revised: 05/16/2023] [Accepted: 05/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Aflatoxins are the most toxic natural mycotoxins discovered so far, posing a serious menace to the food safety and trading economy of the world, especially developing countries. How to effectively detoxify has persistently occupied a place on the list of "global hot-point" concerns. Among the developed detoxification methods, physical methods, as the authoritative techniques for aflatoxins degradation, could rapidly induce irreversible denaturation of aflatoxins. This review presents a brief overview of aflatoxins detection and degradation product structure identification methods. Four main safety evaluation methods for aflatoxins and degradation product toxicity assessment are highlighted combined with an update on research of aflatoxins decontamination in the last decade. Furthermore, the latest applications, degradation mechanisms and products of physical aflatoxin decontamination techniques including microwave heating, irradiation, pulsed light, cold plasma and ultrasound are discussed in detail. Regulatory issues related to "detoxification" are also explained. Finally, we put forward the challenges and future work in studying aflatoxin degradation based on the existing research. The purpose of supplying this information is to help researchers have a deeper understanding on the degradation of aflatoxins, break through the existing bottleneck, and further improve and innovate the detoxification methods of aflatoxins.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zekang Peng
- College of Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Yue Zhang
- College of Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Ziping Ai
- College of Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Ravi Pandiselvam
- Division of Physiology, Biochemistry and Post-Harvest Technology, ICAR-Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Kasaragod, Kerala, India
| | - Jiale Guo
- College of Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Anjineyulu Kothakota
- Agro-Processing & Technology Division, CSIR-National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology (NIIST), Trivandrum, Kerala, India
| | - Yanhong Liu
- College of Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Mukhtar K, Nabi BG, Ansar S, Bhat ZF, Aadil RM, Khaneghah AM. Mycotoxins and consumers' awareness: Recent progress and future challenges. Toxicon 2023:107227. [PMID: 37454753 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2023.107227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2023] [Revised: 07/13/2023] [Accepted: 07/13/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023]
Abstract
While food shortages have become an important challenge, providing safe food resources is a point of interest on a global scale. Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites that are formed through various fungi species. They are mainly spread through diets such as food or beverages. About one quarter of the world's food is spoiled with mycotoxins. As this problem is not resolved, it represents a significant threat to global food security. Besides the current concerns regarding the contamination of food items by these metabolites, the lack of knowledge by consumers and their possible growth and toxin production attracted considerable attention. While globalization provides a favorite condition for some countries, food security still is challenging for most countries. There are various approaches to reducing the mycotoxigenic fungi growth and formation of mycotoxins in food, include as physical, chemical, and biological processes. The current article will focus on collecting data regarding consumers' awareness of mycotoxins. Furthermore, a critical overview and comparison among different preventative approaches to reduce risk by consumers will be discussed. Finally, the current effect of mycotoxins on global trade, besides future challenges faced by mycotoxin contamination on food security, will be discussed briefly.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kinza Mukhtar
- National Institute of Food Science and Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, 38000, Pakistan
| | - Brera Ghulam Nabi
- National Institute of Food Science and Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, 38000, Pakistan
| | - Sadia Ansar
- National Institute of Food Science and Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, 38000, Pakistan
| | | | - Rana Muhammad Aadil
- National Institute of Food Science and Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, 38000, Pakistan.
| | - Amin Mousavi Khaneghah
- Department of Fruit and Vegetable Product Technology, Institute of Agricultural and Food Biotechnology - State Research Institute, Warsaw, Poland; Department of Technology of Chemistry, Azerbaijan State Oil and Industry University, Baku, Azerbaijan.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Hamad GM, Mehany T, Simal-Gandara J, Abou-Alella S, Esua OJ, Abdel-Wahhab MA, Hafez EE. A review of recent innovative strategies for controlling mycotoxins in foods. Food Control 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2022.109350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
|
7
|
An NN, Shang N, Zhao X, Tie XY, Guo WB, Li D, Wang LJ, Wang Y. Occurrence, Regulation, and Emerging Detoxification Techniques of Aflatoxins in Maize: A Review. FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/87559129.2022.2158339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nan-nan An
- College of Engineering, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, National Energy R & D Center for Non-food Biomass, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Nan Shang
- College of Engineering, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, National Energy R & D Center for Non-food Biomass, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Xia Zhao
- College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, Beijing Key Laboratory of Functional Food from Plant Resources, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Xiao-yu Tie
- College of Engineering, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, National Energy R & D Center for Non-food Biomass, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Wen-bo Guo
- College of Engineering, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, National Energy R & D Center for Non-food Biomass, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Dong Li
- College of Engineering, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, National Energy R & D Center for Non-food Biomass, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Li-jun Wang
- College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, Beijing Key Laboratory of Functional Food from Plant Resources, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Yong Wang
- School of Chemical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Kensington, New South Wales, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Gillani SWUHS, Sadef Y, Imran M, Raza HMF, Ghani A, Anwar S, Ashraf MY, Hussain S. Determination and detoxification of aflatoxin and ochratoxin in maize from different regions of Pakistan. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2022; 194:613. [PMID: 35882690 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-022-10197-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2022] [Accepted: 06/18/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The contamination of food commodities with mycotoxins could be a serious health threat to humans and animals. Therefore, identification, quantification and reduction of mycotoxins in food commodities, particularly of aflatoxins (AFs) and ochratoxin A (OTA) in grain foods, is essentially required to guarantee safe food. This study determined the levels of AFs and OTA in 135 maize grains samples belonging to eight salient maize varieties cultivated in Pakistan, and evaluated the usefulness of radiations and adsorbents to reduce their levels. High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)-based method was validated for the determination of AFs and OTA in maize grains. The results showed that 69 and 61% samples were positive for AFs and OTA, respectively and 54 and 22% of the respective samples had AFs and OTA above the permissible limits set by Pakistan Standards and Quality Control Authority. The concentration of AFs, AFB1and OTA in grains ranged from 14.5 to 92.4, 1.02 to 2.46 and 1.41 to 53.9 μg kg-1, respectively. Among the varieties, Pearl had the highest level of total AFs and OTA, whereas YH-5427 had the highest AFB1 level. The lowest concentration of AFs and OTA was found in Malaka and 30Y87, respectively. The use of 15 kGy gamma irradiation for 24 h, sunlight-drying for 20 h and UV irradiation for 12 h almost completely degraded the mycotoxins. The microwave heating for 120 s resulted in 9-33% degradation of mycotoxins. Moreover, the treatment of grains' extract with activated charcoal (5% w/w) removed > 96% of total AFs and AFB1, and up to 43% of OTA. The use of bentonite at the same rate removed OTA, total AFs and AFB1 by 93, 73 and 92%, respectively. Thus, it is concluded that contamination of maize grains with mycotoxins was fairly high in the collected maize grain samples in Pakistan, and treatment with radiations and adsorbents can effectively reduce mycotoxins contamination level in maize grains.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Syed Wajih Ul Hassan Shah Gillani
- Nuclear Institute for Agriculture and Biology (NIAB), Faisalabad, 38000, Pakistan.
- College of Earth and Environmental Sciences (CEES), University of the Punjab, Lahore, 54590, Pakistan.
| | - Yumna Sadef
- College of Earth and Environmental Sciences (CEES), University of the Punjab, Lahore, 54590, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Imran
- Nuclear Institute for Agriculture and Biology (NIAB), Faisalabad, 38000, Pakistan
| | | | - Aamir Ghani
- Maize and Millet Research Institute (MMRI), Ayub Agricultural Research Institute, Sahiwal, 57000, Pakistan
| | - Sumera Anwar
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, The University of Lahore, Lahore, 54000, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Yasin Ashraf
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, The University of Lahore, Lahore, 54000, Pakistan
| | - Shabbir Hussain
- Nuclear Institute for Agriculture and Biology (NIAB), Faisalabad, 38000, Pakistan
- Central Analytical Facility Division, PINSTECH, Islamabad, 45650, Nilore, Pakistan
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Gómez-Salazar JA, Ruiz-Hernández K, Martínez-Miranda MM, Castro-Ríos K. Postharvest strategies for decontamination of aflatoxins in cereals. FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/87559129.2021.2013254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Julián Andrés Gómez-Salazar
- Posgrado En Biociencias, Departamento De Alimentos, División De Ciencias De La Vida, Campus Irapuato-Salamanca, Universidad de Guanajuato, Irapuato, Guanajuato, México
| | - Karla Ruiz-Hernández
- Posgrado En Biociencias, Departamento De Alimentos, División De Ciencias De La Vida, Campus Irapuato-Salamanca, Universidad de Guanajuato, Irapuato, Guanajuato, México
| | | | - Katherin Castro-Ríos
- Grupo de Cromatografía Y Técnicas Afines, Universidad de Caldas, Manizales, Colombia
- Instituto de Investigación En Microbiología Y Biotecnología Agroindustrial, Universidad Católica de Manizales, Manizales, Colombia
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Degradation of aflatoxin B1 by water-assisted microwave irradiation: Kinetics, products, and pathways. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2021.112310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
|
11
|
Blocking and degradation of aflatoxins by cold plasma treatments: Applications and mechanisms. Trends Food Sci Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2021.01.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
|