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Huang Y, Zhai W, Wang Z, He Y, Tao C, Chu Y, Pang Z, Zhu H, Jia H. Analysis of the Immunogenicity of African Swine Fever F317L Protein and Screening of T Cell Epitopes. Animals (Basel) 2024; 14:1331. [PMID: 38731330 PMCID: PMC11083013 DOI: 10.3390/ani14091331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2024] [Revised: 04/15/2024] [Accepted: 04/23/2024] [Indexed: 05/13/2024] Open
Abstract
The African swine fever virus (ASFV) encodes numerous proteins characterized by complex immune escape mechanisms. At present, the structure and function of these proteins, including the F317L protein, have yet to be fully elucidated. In this study, we examined the immunogenicity of the F317L protein. Mice were subcutaneously immunized with the F317L protein using initial and subsequent booster doses, and, at the 28th day post-treatment, we assessed the humoral and cellular immune responses of mice. The F317L protein stimulated production of specific antibodies and activated humoral immune responses. In addition, F317L stimulated the production of large amounts of IFN-γ by splenic lymphocytes, thereby activating cellular immune responses. Using informatics technology, we predicted and synthesized 29 F317L protein T cell epitopes, which were screened using IFN-γ ELISpot. Among these, the F25 (246SRRSLVNPWT255) peptide was identified as having a stronger stimulatory effect than the full-length protein. Collectively, our findings revealed that the ASFV F317L protein can stimulate both strong humoral and cellular immunity in mice, and that the F25 (246SRRSLVNPWT255) peptide may be a potential active T cell epitope. These findings will provide a reference for further in-depth studies of the F317L protein and screening of antigenic epitopes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Huang
- Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China; (Y.H.); (W.Z.); (Z.W.); (Y.H.); (C.T.); (Y.C.); (Z.P.); (H.Z.)
| | - Wenzhu Zhai
- Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China; (Y.H.); (W.Z.); (Z.W.); (Y.H.); (C.T.); (Y.C.); (Z.P.); (H.Z.)
| | - Zhen Wang
- Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China; (Y.H.); (W.Z.); (Z.W.); (Y.H.); (C.T.); (Y.C.); (Z.P.); (H.Z.)
| | - Yuheng He
- Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China; (Y.H.); (W.Z.); (Z.W.); (Y.H.); (C.T.); (Y.C.); (Z.P.); (H.Z.)
- Animal Science and Technology College, Beijing University of Agriculture, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Chunhao Tao
- Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China; (Y.H.); (W.Z.); (Z.W.); (Y.H.); (C.T.); (Y.C.); (Z.P.); (H.Z.)
| | - Yuanyuan Chu
- Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China; (Y.H.); (W.Z.); (Z.W.); (Y.H.); (C.T.); (Y.C.); (Z.P.); (H.Z.)
- Animal Science and Technology College, Beijing University of Agriculture, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Zhongbao Pang
- Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China; (Y.H.); (W.Z.); (Z.W.); (Y.H.); (C.T.); (Y.C.); (Z.P.); (H.Z.)
| | - Hongfei Zhu
- Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China; (Y.H.); (W.Z.); (Z.W.); (Y.H.); (C.T.); (Y.C.); (Z.P.); (H.Z.)
| | - Hong Jia
- Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China; (Y.H.); (W.Z.); (Z.W.); (Y.H.); (C.T.); (Y.C.); (Z.P.); (H.Z.)
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Orosco FL. Host immune responses against African swine fever virus: Insights and challenges for vaccine development. Open Vet J 2023; 13:1517-1535. [PMID: 38292721 PMCID: PMC10824091 DOI: 10.5455/ovj.2023.v13.i12.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2023] [Accepted: 11/22/2023] [Indexed: 02/01/2024] Open
Abstract
The African swine fever virus (ASFV) poses a serious threat to global swine populations, underscoring the urgent need for effective preventive strategies. This comprehensive review investigates the intricate interplay between innate, cellular, and humoral immunity against ASFV, with a focus on their relevance to vaccine development. By delving into immunopathogenesis and immunological challenges, this review article aims to provide a holistic perspective on the complexities of ASFV infections and immune evasion. Key findings underscore the critical role of innate immune recognition in shaping subsequent adaptive immune defenses, potential protective antigens, and the multifaceted nature of ASFV-specific antibodies and cytotoxic T-cell responses. Despite advancements, the unique attributes of ASFV present hurdles in the development of a successful vaccine. In conclusion, this review examines the current state of ASFV immune responses and offers insights into future research directions, fostering the development of effective interventions against this devastating pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fredmoore L. Orosco
- Virology and Vaccine Institute of the Philippines Program, Department of Science and Technology, Industrial Technology Development Institute, Taguig, Philippines
- S&T Fellows Program, Department of Science and Technology, Taguig, Philippines
- Department of Biology, College of Arts and Sciences, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila, Philippines
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Gao P, Zhou L, Wu J, Weng W, Wang H, Ye M, Qu Y, Hao Y, Zhang Y, Ge X, Guo X, Han J, Yang H. Riding apoptotic bodies for cell-cell transmission by African swine fever virus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2309506120. [PMID: 37983498 PMCID: PMC10691326 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2309506120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2023] [Accepted: 10/25/2023] [Indexed: 11/22/2023] Open
Abstract
African swine fever virus (ASFV), a devastating pathogen to the worldwide swine industry, mainly targets macrophage/monocyte lineage, but how the virus enters host cells has remained unclear. Here, we report that ASFV utilizes apoptotic bodies (ApoBDs) for infection and cell-cell transmission. We show that ASFV induces cell apoptosis of primary porcine alveolar macrophages (PAMs) at the late stage of infection to productively shed ApoBDs that are subsequently swallowed by neighboring PAMs to initiate a secondary infection as evidenced by electron microscopy and live-cell imaging. Interestingly, the virions loaded within ApoBDs are exclusively single-enveloped particles that are devoid of the outer layer of membrane and represent a predominant form produced during late infection. The in vitro purified ApoBD vesicles are capable of mediating virus infection of naive PAMs, but the transmission can be significantly inhibited by blocking the "eat-me" signal phosphatidyserine on the surface of ApoBDs via Annexin V or the efferocytosis receptor TIM4 on the recipient PAMs via anti-TIM4 antibody, whereas overexpression of TIM4 enhances virus infection. The same treatment however did not affect the infection by intracellular viruses. Importantly, the swine sera to ASFV exert no effect on the ApoBD-mediated transmission but can partially act on the virions lacking the outer layer of membrane. Thus, ASFV has evolved to hijack a normal cellular pathway for cell-cell spread to evade host responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Gao
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health Security, Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing100193, People’s Republic of China
| | - Lei Zhou
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health Security, Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing100193, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jiajun Wu
- China Animal Disease Control Center, Beijing100125, People’s Republic of China
| | - Wenlian Weng
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health Security, Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing100193, People’s Republic of China
| | - Hua Wang
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health Security, Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing100193, People’s Republic of China
| | - Miaomiao Ye
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health Security, Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing100193, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yajin Qu
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health Security, Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing100193, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yuxin Hao
- China Animal Disease Control Center, Beijing100125, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yongning Zhang
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health Security, Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing100193, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xinna Ge
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health Security, Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing100193, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xin Guo
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health Security, Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing100193, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jun Han
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health Security, Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing100193, People’s Republic of China
| | - Hanchun Yang
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health Security, Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing100193, People’s Republic of China
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Tng PYL, Al-Adwani L, Pauletto E, Hui JYK, Netherton CL. Capsid-Specific Antibody Responses of Domestic Pigs Immunized with Low-Virulent African Swine Fever Virus. Vaccines (Basel) 2023; 11:1577. [PMID: 37896980 PMCID: PMC10611099 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines11101577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2023] [Revised: 10/03/2023] [Accepted: 10/09/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
African swine fever (ASF) is a lethal disease in pigs that has grave socio-economic implications worldwide. For the development of vaccines against the African swine fever virus (ASFV), immunogenic antigens that generate protective immune responses need to be identified. There are over 150 viral proteins-many of which are uncharacterized-and humoral immunity to ASFV has not been closely examined. To profile antigen-specific antibody responses, we developed luciferase-linked antibody capture assays (LACAs) for a panel of ASFV capsid proteins and screened sera from inbred and outbred animals that were previously immunized with low-virulent ASFV before challenge with virulent ASFV. Antibodies to B646L/p72, D117L/p17, M1249L, and E120R/p14.5 were detected in this study; however, we were unable to detect B438L-specific antibodies. Anti-B646L/p72 and B602L antibodies were associated with recovery from disease after challenges with genotype I OUR T88/1 but not genotype II Georgia 2007/1. Antibody responses against M1249L and E120R/p14.5 were observed in animals with reduced clinical signs and viremia. Here, we present LACAs as a tool for the targeted profiling of antigen-specific antibody responses to inform vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priscilla Y. L. Tng
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, Woking GU24 0NF, UK; (L.A.-A.); (E.P.); (J.Y.K.H.)
| | - Laila Al-Adwani
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, Woking GU24 0NF, UK; (L.A.-A.); (E.P.); (J.Y.K.H.)
| | - Egle Pauletto
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, Woking GU24 0NF, UK; (L.A.-A.); (E.P.); (J.Y.K.H.)
- The Institute of Medical Sciences, Foresterhill, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, UK
| | - Joshua Y. K. Hui
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, Woking GU24 0NF, UK; (L.A.-A.); (E.P.); (J.Y.K.H.)
| | - Christopher L. Netherton
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, Woking GU24 0NF, UK; (L.A.-A.); (E.P.); (J.Y.K.H.)
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Tenaya WM, Swacita IBN, Wirata K, Damriyasa M, Besung NK, Suarsana N, Sari TK, Agustina KK. A study of African swine fever virus in Regional VI of the Disease Investigation Center of Denpasar Bali in Indonesia. Vet World 2023; 16:844-850. [PMID: 37235158 PMCID: PMC10206974 DOI: 10.14202/vetworld.2023.844-850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2023] [Accepted: 03/10/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Background and Aims African swine fever (ASF) is a highly contagious viral disease that causes major economic losses due to morbidity and fatality rates of up to 100% in wild boar and domestic pigs. The disease emerged in Africa in 1921 and then entered several European countries by 1957. In Indonesia, the first outbreak of ASF in 2019 in North Sumatra killed thousands of pigs and quickly spread to 10 out of 34 pig-producing provinces, including Bali and Eastern Nusa Tenggara. As no commercial ASF vaccine is available, the disease has become endemic and continues killing pigs. This study aimed to investigate the epidemiological and virological studies of ASF virus (ASFV) conducted in 2020 and 2021 by the Disease Investigation Center Regional VI of Denpasar Bali, which covers three provinces in Indonesia, including Bali, Western Nusa Tenggara, and Eastern Nusa Tenggara. Materials and Methods A total of 5402 blood samples were sent to the laboratory to detect ASFV infection using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay tests. The virological studies were performed by culturing local ASFV isolates obtained from field cases in primary macrophages and confirmation of viral growth by qPCR. Results The qPCR results show that only 156/4528 (3.4%) of samples originating from Bali and Eastern Nusa Tenggara were ASFV-positive with cycle threshold value of 18 to 23, while the virus was not detected in Western Nusa Tenggara. Of 874 serum samples tested, 114 (13%) were antibody positive and were all collected from the two ASFV-affected provinces in 2020. A Bali ASFV isolate (BL21) was isolated and characterized molecularly. Conclusion These findings suggest that during the time of sampling, ASFV was detected only in Bali and East Nusa Tenggara but not in Western Nusa Tenggara. These findings support the symptomology of ASFV reported in the two regions. Moreover, BL21 may be useful for developing subculture-attenuated vaccines using commercial cell lines. However, the current study has some limitations namely the investigation was not performed during the initial outbreak and no pathological examination of internal organs was conducted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wayan Masa Tenaya
- Department of Disease Prevention, Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Udayana University, Denpasar Bali of Indonesia, Jl. PB Sudirman, Denpasar, Bali 80234, Indonesia
| | - Ida Bagus Ngurah Swacita
- Department of Disease Prevention, Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Udayana University, Denpasar Bali of Indonesia, Jl. PB Sudirman, Denpasar, Bali 80234, Indonesia
| | - Ketut Wirata
- Disease Investigation Center, Regional VI Denpasar Bali, Jl. Raya Sesetan No. 266, Sesetan, Denpasar Selatan, Kota Denpasar, Bali 80223, Indonesia
| | - Made Damriyasa
- Laboratory of Clinical Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Udayana University, Denpasar Bali of Indonesia, Jl. PB Sudirman, Denpasar, Bali 80234, Indonesia
| | - Nengah Kerta Besung
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Udayana University, Denpasar Bali of Indonesia, Jl. PB Sudirman, Denpasar, Bali 80234, Indonesia
| | - Nyoman Suarsana
- Laboratory of Biochemical, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Udayana University, Denpasar Bali of Indonesia, Jl. PB Sudirman, Denpasar, Bali 80234, Indonesia
| | - Tri Komala Sari
- Laboratory of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Udayana University, Denpasar Bali of Indonesia, Jl. PB Sudirman, Denpasar, Bali 80234, Indonesia
| | - Kadek Karang Agustina
- Department of Disease Prevention, Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Udayana University, Denpasar Bali of Indonesia, Jl. PB Sudirman, Denpasar, Bali 80234, Indonesia
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Attreed SE, Silva C, Abbott S, Ramirez-Medina E, Espinoza N, Borca MV, Gladue DP, Diaz-San Segundo F. A Highly Effective African Swine Fever Virus Vaccine Elicits a Memory T Cell Response in Vaccinated Swine. Pathogens 2022; 11:pathogens11121438. [PMID: 36558773 PMCID: PMC9783822 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11121438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2022] [Revised: 11/17/2022] [Accepted: 11/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
African Swine Fever Virus (ASFV) is the causative agent of a highly contagious and lethal vector-borne disease in suids. Recently, a live attenuated virus strain, developed using the currently circulating, virulent Georgia strain (ASFV-G) with a single gene deletion (ASFV-G-ΔI177L), resulted in an effective vaccine. Nevertheless, protective immune response mechanisms induced by this candidate are poorly understood. In this study, Yorkshire crossbred swine intramuscularly vaccinated with 106 50% hemadsorption dose (HAD50) of ASFV-G-ΔI177L or a vehicle control were challenged at 28 days post-inoculation (dpi) with 102 HAD50 of ASFV-G. Analysis of purified peripheral blood mononuclear cells following inoculation and challenge revealed that CD4+, CD8+ and CD4+CD8+ central memory T cells (CD44+CD25-CD27-CD62L+CCR7+, Tcm) decreased significantly by 28 dpi in ASFV-G-ΔI177L-vaccinated swine compared to baseline and time-matched controls. Conversely, CD4+, CD8+ and CD4+CD8+ effector memory T cells (CD44+CD25-CD27-CD62-CCR7-, Tem) increased significantly among ASFV-G-ΔI177L-vaccined swine by 28 dpi compared to baseline and time-matched controls. Additionally, the percentage of natural killer (NK), CD4+ and CD4+CD8+ Tem and CD8+ Tcm and Tem positive for IFNγ increased significantly following inoculation, surpassing that of controls by 28 dpi or earlier. These results suggest that NK and memory T cells play a role in protective immunity and suggest that studying these cell populations may be a surrogate immunity marker in ASF vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah E. Attreed
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Greenport, New York, NY 11944, USA
- PIADC Research Participation Program, Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education (ORISE), Oak Ridge, TN 37830, USA
| | - Christina Silva
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Greenport, New York, NY 11944, USA
| | - Sophia Abbott
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Greenport, New York, NY 11944, USA
| | - Elizabeth Ramirez-Medina
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Greenport, New York, NY 11944, USA
| | - Nallely Espinoza
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Greenport, New York, NY 11944, USA
| | - Manuel V. Borca
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Greenport, New York, NY 11944, USA
- Correspondence: (M.V.B.); (D.P.G.); (F.D.-S.S.); Tel.: +1-(631)-323-3131 (M.V.B.); +1-(631)-323-3035 (D.P.G.); +1-(631)-323-3012 (F.D.-S.S.)
| | - Douglas P. Gladue
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Greenport, New York, NY 11944, USA
- Correspondence: (M.V.B.); (D.P.G.); (F.D.-S.S.); Tel.: +1-(631)-323-3131 (M.V.B.); +1-(631)-323-3035 (D.P.G.); +1-(631)-323-3012 (F.D.-S.S.)
| | - Fayna Diaz-San Segundo
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Greenport, New York, NY 11944, USA
- Correspondence: (M.V.B.); (D.P.G.); (F.D.-S.S.); Tel.: +1-(631)-323-3131 (M.V.B.); +1-(631)-323-3035 (D.P.G.); +1-(631)-323-3012 (F.D.-S.S.)
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African Swine Fever Vaccinology: The Biological Challenges from Immunological Perspectives. Viruses 2022; 14:v14092021. [PMID: 36146827 PMCID: PMC9505361 DOI: 10.3390/v14092021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2022] [Revised: 08/22/2022] [Accepted: 09/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
African swine fever virus (ASFV), a nucleocytoplasmic large DNA virus (NCLDV), causes African swine fever (ASF), an acute hemorrhagic disease with mortality rates up to 100% in domestic pigs. ASF is currently epidemic or endemic in many countries and threatening the global swine industry. Extensive ASF vaccine research has been conducted since the 1920s. Like inactivated viruses of other NCLDVs, such as vaccinia virus, inactivated ASFV vaccine candidates did not induce protective immunity. However, inactivated lumpy skin disease virus (poxvirus) vaccines are protective in cattle. Unlike some experimental poxvirus subunit vaccines that induced protection, ASF subunit vaccine candidates implemented with various platforms containing several ASFV structural genes or proteins failed to protect pigs effectively. Only some live attenuated viruses (LAVs) are able to protect pigs with high degrees of efficacy. There are currently several LAV ASF vaccine candidates. Only one commercial LAV vaccine is approved for use in Vietnam. LAVs, as ASF vaccines, have not yet been widely tested. Reports thus far show that the onset and duration of protection induced by the LAVs are late and short, respectively, compared to LAV vaccines for other diseases. In this review, the biological challenges in the development of ASF vaccines, especially subunit platforms, are discussed from immunological perspectives based on several unusual ASFV characteristics shared with HIV and poxviruses. These characteristics, including multiple distinct infectious virions, extremely high glycosylation and low antigen surface density of envelope proteins, immune evasion, and possible apoptotic mimicry, could pose enormous challenges to the development of ASF vaccines, especially subunit platforms designed to induce humoral immunity.
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