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Purhonen R, Atanasova NS, Salokas J, Duplissy J, Loikkanen E, Maunula L. A Pilot Study of Aerosolization of Infectious Murine Norovirus in an Experimental Setup. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2024:10.1007/s12560-024-09595-2. [PMID: 38698288 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-024-09595-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2024] [Accepted: 03/08/2024] [Indexed: 05/05/2024]
Abstract
Human norovirus is transmitted mainly via the faecal-oral route, but norovirus disease outbreaks have been reported in which airborne transmission has been suggested as the only explanation. We used murine norovirus (MNV) as a surrogate for human norovirus to determine the aerosolization of infectious norovirus in an experimental setup. A 3-l air chamber system was used for aerosolization of MNV. Virus in solution (6 log10 TCID50/ml) was introduced into the nebulizer for generating aerosols and a RAW 264.7 cell dish without a lid was placed in the air chamber. Cell culture medium samples were taken from the dishes after the aerosol exposure time of 30 or 90 min, and the dishes were placed in a 37 °C, 5% CO2 incubator and inspected with a light microscope for viral cytopathic effects (CPEs). We determined both the infectious MNV TCID50 titre and used an RT-qPCR assay. During the experiments, virus infectivity remained stable for 30 and 90 min in the MNV solution in the nebulizer. Infectious MNV TCID50 values/ml of 2.89 ± 0.29 and 3.20 ± 0.49 log10 were measured in the chamber in RAW 264.7 cell dish media after the 30-min and 90-min exposure, respectively. The MNV RNA loads were 6.20 ± 0.24 and 6.93 ± 1.02 log10 genome copies/ml, respectively. Later, a typical MNV CPE appeared in the aerosol-exposed RAW cell dishes. We demonstrated that MNV was aerosolized and that it remained infectious in the experimental setup used. Further studies required for understanding the behaviour of MNV in aerosols can thus be performed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roderik Purhonen
- Department of Food Hygiene and Environmental Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Nina S Atanasova
- Molecular and Integrative Biosciences Research Programme, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Atmospheric Composition Unit, Finnish Meteorological Institute, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Julija Salokas
- Department of Food Hygiene and Environmental Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Molecular and Integrative Biosciences Research Programme, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jonathan Duplissy
- Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research (INAR), Faculty of Science, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Emil Loikkanen
- Department of Food Hygiene and Environmental Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Leena Maunula
- Department of Food Hygiene and Environmental Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.
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Horne J, Dunne N, Singh N, Safiuddin M, Esmaeili N, Erenler M, Ho I, Luk E. Building parameters linked with indoor transmission of SARS-CoV-2. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2023; 238:117156. [PMID: 37717799 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2023.117156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2023] [Revised: 07/27/2023] [Accepted: 09/14/2023] [Indexed: 09/19/2023]
Abstract
The rapid spread of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has emphasized the importance of understanding and adapting to the indoor remediation of transmissible diseases to decrease the risk for future pandemic threats. While there were many precautions in place to hinder the spread of COVID-19, there has also been a substantial increase of new research on SARS-CoV-2 that can be utilized to further mitigate the transmission risk of this novel virus. This review paper aims to identify the building parameters of indoor spaces that could have considerable influence on the transmission of SARS-CoV-2. The following building parameters have been identified and analyzed, emphasizing their link with the indoor transmission of SARS-CoV-2: temperature and relative humidity, temperature differences between rooms, ventilation rate and access to natural ventilation, occupant density, surface type and finish, airflow direction and speed, air stability, indoor air pollution, central air conditioning systems, capacity of air handling system and HVAC filter efficiency, edge sealing of air filters, room layout and interior design, and compartmentalization of interior space. This paper also explains the interactions of SARS-CoV-2 with indoor environments and its persistence. Furthermore, the modifications of the key building parameters have been discussed for controlling the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in indoor spaces. Understanding the information provided in this paper is crucial to develop effective health and safety measures that will aid in infection prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacqueline Horne
- Centre for Construction and Engineering Technologies, George Brown College, Casa Loma Campus, 160 Kendal Avenue, Toronto, ON M5R 1M3, Canada
| | - Nicholas Dunne
- Centre for Construction and Engineering Technologies, George Brown College, Casa Loma Campus, 160 Kendal Avenue, Toronto, ON M5R 1M3, Canada
| | - Nirmala Singh
- Centre for Construction and Engineering Technologies, George Brown College, Casa Loma Campus, 160 Kendal Avenue, Toronto, ON M5R 1M3, Canada
| | - Md Safiuddin
- Centre for Construction and Engineering Technologies, George Brown College, Casa Loma Campus, 160 Kendal Avenue, Toronto, ON M5R 1M3, Canada.
| | - Navid Esmaeili
- Centre for Construction and Engineering Technologies, George Brown College, Casa Loma Campus, 160 Kendal Avenue, Toronto, ON M5R 1M3, Canada
| | - Merve Erenler
- Centre for Construction and Engineering Technologies, George Brown College, Casa Loma Campus, 160 Kendal Avenue, Toronto, ON M5R 1M3, Canada
| | - Ian Ho
- Sysconverge Inc., 7030 Woodbine Avenue, Suite 500, Markham, ON L3R 6G2, Canada
| | - Edwin Luk
- Sysconverge Inc., 7030 Woodbine Avenue, Suite 500, Markham, ON L3R 6G2, Canada
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Gu Z, Han J, Zhang L, Wang H, Luo X, Meng X, Zhang Y, Niu X, Lan Y, Wu S, Cao J, Lichtfouse E. Unanswered questions on the airborne transmission of COVID-19. ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY LETTERS 2023; 21:725-739. [PMID: 36628267 PMCID: PMC9816530 DOI: 10.1007/s10311-022-01557-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2022] [Accepted: 12/20/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Policies and measures to control pandemics are often failing. While biological factors controlling transmission are usually well explored, little is known about the environmental drivers of transmission and infection. For instance, respiratory droplets and aerosol particles are crucial vectors for the airborne transmission of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, the causation agent of the coronavirus 2019 pandemic (COVID-19). Once expectorated, respiratory droplets interact with atmospheric particulates that influence the viability and transmission of the novel coronavirus, yet there is little knowledge on this process or its consequences on virus transmission and infection. Here we review the effects of atmospheric particulate properties, vortex zones, and air pollution on virus survivability and transmission. We found that particle size, chemical constituents, electrostatic charges, and the moisture content of airborne particles can have notable effects on virus transmission, with higher survival generally associated with larger particles, yet some viruses are better preserved on small particles. Some chemical constituents and surface-adsorbed chemical species may damage peptide bonds in viral proteins and impair virus stability. Electrostatic charges and water content of atmospheric particulates may affect the adherence of virion particles and possibly their viability. In addition, vortex zones and human thermal plumes are major environmental factors altering the aerodynamics of buoyant particles in air, which can strongly influence the transport of airborne particles and the transmission of associated viruses. Insights into these factors may provide explanations for the widely observed positive correlations between COVID-19 infection and mortality with air pollution, of which particulate matter is a common constituent that may have a central role in the airborne transmission of the novel coronavirus. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10311-022-01557-z.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhaolin Gu
- School of Human Settlements and Civil Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, 710049 People’s Republic of China
| | - Jie Han
- School of Human Settlements and Civil Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, 710049 People’s Republic of China
| | - Liyuan Zhang
- School of Water and Environment, Chang’an University, Xi’an, 710064 People’s Republic of China
| | - Hongliang Wang
- Health Science Center, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, 710049 People’s Republic of China
| | - Xilian Luo
- School of Human Settlements and Civil Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, 710049 People’s Republic of China
| | - Xiangzhao Meng
- School of Human Settlements and Civil Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, 710049 People’s Republic of China
| | - Yue Zhang
- School of Architecture, Chang’an University, Xi’an, 710064 People’s Republic of China
| | - Xinyi Niu
- School of Human Settlements and Civil Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, 710049 People’s Republic of China
| | - Yang Lan
- School of Public Health, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, 710049 People’s Republic of China
| | - Shaowei Wu
- School of Public Health, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, 710049 People’s Republic of China
| | - Junji Cao
- Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100029 People’s Republic of China
| | - Eric Lichtfouse
- State Key Laboratory of Multiphase Flow in Power Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, 710049 Shaanxi People’s Republic of China
- CNRS, IRD, INRAE, CEREGE, Aix-Marseille University, 13100, Aix-en-Provence, France
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