Plasma-Glucocorticoids and ACTH Levels During Different Periods of Activity in the European Beaver (Castor fiber L.)

Parental Behavior in Rodents

Members of the order Rodentia are among the best-studied mammals for understanding the patterns, outcomes, and biological determinants of maternal and paternal caregiving. This research has provided a wealth of information but has historically focused on just a few rodents, mostly members of the two Myomorpha families that easily breed and can be studied within a laboratory setting (including laboratory rats, mice, hamsters, voles, gerbils). It is unclear how well this small collection of animals represents the over 2000 species of extant rodents. This chapter provides an overview of the hormonal and neurobiological systems involved in parental care in rodents, with a purposeful eye on providing information known or could be gleaned about parenting in various less-traditional members of Rodentia. We conclude from this analysis that the few commonly studied rodents are not necessarily even representative of the highly diverse members of Myomorpha, let alone other rodent suborders, and that additional laboratory and field studies of members of this order more broadly would surely provide invaluable information toward revealing a more representative picture of the rich diversity in rodent parenting.

Hormone seasonality in medical records suggests circannual endocrine circuits

We provide a dataset of millions of hormone tests from medical records that shows seasonality with a winter−spring peak in hormones for reproduction, growth, metabolism, and stress adaptation. Together with a long history of studies on a winter−spring peak in human function and growth, the hormone seasonality indicates that, like other animals, humans may have a physiological peak season for basic biological functions. We further use the specific seasonal phases of the hormones to suggest a model for a circannual clock in humans and animals that can keep track of the seasons, similar in spirit to the circadian clock that keeps track of time of day.

Hormones control the major biological functions of stress response, growth, metabolism, and reproduction. In animals, these hormones show pronounced seasonality, with different set-points for different seasons. In humans, the seasonality of these hormones remains unclear, due to a lack of datasets large enough to discern common patterns and cover all hormones. Here, we analyze an Israeli health record on 46 million person-years, including millions of hormone blood tests. We find clear seasonal patterns: The effector hormones peak in winter−spring, whereas most of their upstream regulating pituitary hormones peak only months later, in summer. This delay of months is unexpected because known delays in the hormone circuits last hours. We explain the precise delays and amplitudes by proposing and testing a mechanism for the circannual clock: The gland masses grow with a timescale of months due to trophic effects of the hormones, generating a feedback circuit with a natural frequency of about a year that can entrain to the seasons. Thus, humans may show coordinated seasonal set-points with a winter−spring peak in the growth, stress, metabolism, and reproduction axes.

Sex- and season-dependent differences in the expression of adiponectin and adiponectin receptors (AdipoR1 and AdipoR2) in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis of the Eurasian beaver (Castor fiber L.)

Adiponectin, a product of the Adipoq gene, is an adipocyte-derived protein hormone of the cytokine family and the most abundantly expressed adipokine. Adiponectin and its receptors AdipoR1 and AdipoR2 (collectively referred to as the adiponectin system) are widely expressed in the central nervous system and other tissues, which suggests that this hormone has pleiotropic effects. Adiponectin could also play a role in the modulation of the hypothalamic-pituitaryadrenal (HPA) hormonal regulatory axis. There is a general scarcity of data on the adiponectin system in wild animals where annual changes in reproductive activity are linked with fluctuations in the activity of the HPA axis. The Eurasian beaver (Castor fiber L.) could be an interesting and suitable model for investigating the above processes. We hypothesized that the expression of the adiponectin system in the tissues of the beaver HPA axis is sex- and season-dependent. The study was performed on adult animals harvested during three different stages of reproductive activity: April ('breeding'), July ('post-breeding') and November ('pre-breeding'). The expression of the adiponectin system was confirmed in all branches (mediobasal hypothalamus, pituitary, adrenal cortex) of the HPA axis in both sexes and during all periods of reproductive activity. The expression of Adipoq, AdipoR1 and AdipoR2 was generally dependent on sex and the period of the reproductive season. The expression of adiponectin system genes was particularly pronounced in the adrenal cortex. These findings suggest that the adiponectin system in the Eurasian beaver could link reproductive processes with stress responses and energy metabolism.

Leptin/leptin receptor system in the regulation of reproductive functions and stress response in the European beaver

The European beaver (Castor fiber L.) is the largest free-living rodent in Eurasia. The present work aimed to determine sex- and season-related changes in leptin receptor (Ob-R) expression in the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal/adrenal axes and uterus of beavers during breeding- (April), post-breeding- (July), and pre-breeding- (November) periods. The expression of Ob-R gene and protein was found in all analyzed tissues. The expression of Ob-R mRNA remained constant in the hypothalamus of both sexes during the analyzed stages. Sex- and season-related changes were found in the pituitary gland; the greatest level was observed in July in both sexes. The same expression pattern was noted in the testis, whereas in the ovary a lack of seasonal changes was found. In uterine tissues, the greatest expression occurred in November. The impact of season was also demonstrated in the adrenal cortex. In females, a higher Ob-R transcript level was noted in April, while in males, an increased mRNA abundance was noted in November than July. Our study suggests that in the beaver, leptin acting via the Ob-R can be an important endocrine factor engaged in the regulation of reproductive functions and stress response.

Seasonal differences in the testicular transcriptome profile of free-living European beavers (Castor fiber L.) determined by the RNA-Seq method

The European beaver (Castor fiber L.) is an important free-living rodent that inhabits Eurasian temperate forests. Beavers are often referred to as ecosystem engineers because they create or change existing habitats, enhance biodiversity and prepare the environment for diverse plant and animal species. Beavers are protected in most European Union countries, but their genomic background remains unknown. In this study, gene expression patterns in beaver testes and the variations in genetic expression in breeding and non-breeding seasons were determined by high-throughput transcriptome sequencing. Paired-end sequencing in the Illumina HiSeq 2000 sequencer produced a total of 373.06 million of high-quality reads. De novo assembly of contigs yielded 130,741 unigenes with an average length of 1,369.3 nt, N50 value of 1,734, and average GC content of 46.51%. A comprehensive analysis of the testicular transcriptome revealed more than 26,000 highly expressed unigenes which exhibited the highest homology with Rattus norvegicus and Ictidomys tridecemlineatus genomes. More than 8,000 highly expressed genes were found to be involved in fundamental biological processes, cellular components or molecular pathways. The study also revealed 42 genes whose regulation differed between breeding and non-breeding seasons. During the non-breeding period, the expression of 37 genes was up-regulated, and the expression of 5 genes was down-regulated relative to the breeding season. The identified genes encode molecules which are involved in signaling transduction, DNA repair, stress responses, inflammatory processes, metabolism and steroidogenesis. Our results pave the way for further research into season-dependent variations in beaver testes.

Orexin receptor expression in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal and hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axes of free-living European beavers (Castor fiber L.) in different periods of the reproductive cycle

Orexins are hypothalamic neuropeptides acting via two G protein-coupled receptors in mammals: orexin receptor 1 (OX1R) and orexin receptor 2 (OX2R). In European beavers, which are seasonally breeding animals, the presence and functions of orexins and their receptors remain unknown. Our study aimed to determine the expression of OXR mRNAs and the localization of OXR proteins in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal/gonadal (HPA/HPG) axes in free-living beavers. The expression of OXR genes (OX1R, OX2R) and proteins was found in all analysed tissues during three periods of beavers' reproductive cycle (April, July, November). The expression of OXR mRNAs in the beaver HPA axis varied seasonally (P<0.05). The levels of OX1R mRNA also differed between the sexes (P<0.05). In the mediobasal hypothalamus, OX1R transcript content increased in pregnant females in April (P<0.05) and OX2R expression increased in males in July (P<0.05). In the pituitary and adrenals, OX1R mRNA levels were relatively constant in females and peaked in July in males (P<0.05), whereas the OX2R was most highly expressed in males in November and in females in April (P<0.05). In gonads, OX1R expression did not fluctuate between seasons or sexes, but transcript levels were elevated in the testes in November and in the ovaries in July (P<0.05). In turn, OX2R mRNA levels varied between the sexes (P<0.05) and were higher in females (July and November) than in males (P<0.05). The circannual variations in OXR mRNA levels in HPA and HPG axes suggest that the expression of these receptors is associated with sex-specific changes in beavers' reproductive activity and their environmental adaptations.