The Strategies of Pathogen-Oriented Therapy on Circumventing Antimicrobial Resistance

Dual oxygen supply system of carbon dot-loaded microbubbles with acoustic cavitation for enhanced sonodynamic therapy in diabetic wound healing

Diabetic wounds present significant treatment challenges due to their complex microenvironment, marked by persistent inflammation from bacterial infections, hypoxia caused by diabetic microangiopathy, and biofilm colonization. Sonodynamic therapy (SDT) offers potential for treating such wounds by targeting deep tissues with antibacterial effects, but its efficacy is limited by hypoxic conditions and biofilm barriers. To overcome these obstacles, we developed a novel approach using oxygen-carrying microbubbles loaded with Mn2+-doped carbon dots (MnCDs@O2MBs) to enhance SDT and disrupt biofilms. Through precursor screening and design, MnCDs are engineered to exhibit tailored properties of sonodynamic activity and enzyme-like catalytic capabilities. This system provides a dual oxygen supply for amplifying the SDT effects: MnCDs, serving as a sonosensitizer, also chemically convert excess H2O2 at infection sites into oxygen, while the O2MBs physically release oxygen through ultrasound-induced cavitation. The cavitation effect also disrupts biofilms, improving the delivery of sonosensitizers and boosting SDT efficacy. In a diabetic wound model, this strategy downregulated TLR, NF-κB, and TNF inflammatory pathways, reduced pro-inflammatory factor secretion, promoted angiogenesis, and accelerated wound healing, thereby acting as a promising treatment approach for diabetic wound healing.

A critical view of antimicrobial peptides: exploring their potential and the barriers to realization

The global rise of multidrug-resistant infections highlights the urgent need for innovative therapeutic strategies beyond traditional antibiotics. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), naturally occurring in all forms of life and synthetically producible, have garnered significant attention for their broad-spectrum antimicrobial properties and diverse mechanisms of action, including membrane disruption, immune modulation, and biofilm formation inhibition and disruption. Despite great potential, the clinical deployment of AMPs faces significant challenges, including cytotoxicity, low chemical stability, high production costs, and stringent regulatory demands. Innovative strategies, such as AMP-antibiotic conjugation, offer potential solutions to some of these challenges by enhancing efficacy, reducing toxicity, and broadening antimicrobial activity. This review critically evaluates the promise and limitations of AMPs as therapeutic antibacterial agents. We also explore the potential of AMP-antibiotic conjugates, highlighting their potential synergistic effects and the obstacles to their clinical application. Antimicrobial self-assembling peptides are also discussed, with their ability to form nanostructures that may disrupt biofilms and inhibit bacterial communication, representing a promising but complex avenue. A critical evaluation of these emerging strategies, grounded in their practical applicability and translational challenges, is essential to drive meaningful progress in combating antimicrobial resistance.

Novel antibacterial agents and emerging therapies in the fight against multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii

Acinetobacter baumannii, a multidrug-resistant pathogen, poses a critical challenge in healthcare settings due to its adaptability and limited treatment options. The global rise in antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has underscored the urgent need for novel therapeutic strategies to combat infections caused by extensively drug-resistant (EDR) and pan-drug-resistant (PDR) A. baumannii. Traditional antibiotic discovery methods, such as whole-cell screening, have fallen short, consistently identifying drugs prone to resistance. This review explores the discovery of new anti-bacterial agents targeting A. baumannii, focusing on emerging therapeutic approaches, including nanoparticle-based therapies, antimicrobial peptides, and antibiotic combination therapies. Nanoparticle-based approaches, leveraging enhanced penetration and multi-mechanistic action, show promise in overcoming resistance, though challenges such as toxicity and biocompatibility persist. Additionally, combination therapies, such as polymyxins with carbapenems, have demonstrated efficacy in clinical settings. This review also highlights the limitations of current therapies, the mechanisms of bacterial resistance, and the role of alternative strategies like bacteriophage therapy. Emphasis is placed on the need for further research into overcoming cross-resistance and enhancing therapeutic efficacy against A. baumannii. The review concludes by discussing the importance of advancing research into novel agents, optimizing dosage strategies, and addressing the challenges posed by toxicity to ensure the effective treatment of A. baumannii infections in both hospital and community settings.

An Overview of the Recent Advances in Antimicrobial Resistance

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR), frequently considered a major global public health threat, requires a comprehensive understanding of its emergence, mechanisms, advances, and implications. AMR's epidemiological landscape is characterized by its widespread prevalence and constantly evolving patterns, with multidrug-resistant organisms (MDROs) creating new challenges every day. The most common mechanisms underlying AMR (i.e., genetic mutations, horizontal gene transfer, and selective pressure) contribute to the emergence and dissemination of new resistant strains. Therefore, mitigation strategies (e.g., antibiotic stewardship programs-ASPs-and infection prevention and control strategies-IPCs) emphasize the importance of responsible antimicrobial use and surveillance. A One Health approach (i.e., the interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental health) highlights the necessity for interdisciplinary collaboration and holistic strategies in combating AMR. Advancements in novel therapeutics (e.g., alternative antimicrobial agents and vaccines) offer promising avenues in addressing AMR challenges. Policy interventions at the international and national levels also promote ASPs aiming to regulate antimicrobial use. Despite all of the observed progress, AMR remains a pressing concern, demanding sustained efforts to address emerging threats and promote antimicrobial sustainability. Future research must prioritize innovative approaches and address the complex socioecological dynamics underlying AMR. This manuscript is a comprehensive resource for researchers, policymakers, and healthcare professionals seeking to navigate the complex AMR landscape and develop effective strategies for its mitigation.

Murepavadin Enhances the Killing Efficacy of Ciprofloxacin against Pseudomonas aeruginosa by Inhibiting Drug Efflux

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a multidrug-resistant Gram-negative pathogen and one of the leading causes of ventilator-associated pneumonia and infections in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and cystic fibrosis. Murepavadin is a peptidomimetic that specifically targets outer-membrane lipopolysaccharide transport protein LptD of P. aeruginosa. In this study, we find that murepavadin enhances the bactericidal efficacy of ciprofloxacin. We further demonstrate that murepavadin increases intracellular accumulation of ciprofloxacin by suppressing drug efflux. In addition, the murepavadin-ciprofloxacin combination exhibits a synergistic bactericidal effect in an acute murine pneumonia model. In conclusion, our results identify an effective drug combination for the treatment of P. aeruginosa infections.

Prevalence, pandemic, preventions and policies to overcome antimicrobial resistance

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a growing concern in Asia, and it is essential to understand the prevalence, pandemic, prevention, and policies to overcome it. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), AMR is one of the main causes of death; in 2019, it was linked to 4.95 million fatalities and caused about 1.27 million deaths. A core package of actions has been provided by WHO to help countries prioritize their needs when creating, carrying out, and overseeing national action plans on antimicrobial resistance. Using a people-cantered approach to AMR, the interventions address the needs and obstacles that individuals and patients encounter when trying to obtain healthcare. The people-cantered core package of AMR treatments seeks to improve public and policymakers; awareness and comprehension of AMR by changing the narrative of AMR to emphasize the needs of people and systemic impairments. Additionally, it backs a more comprehensive and programmatic national response to AMR, which emphasizes the value of fair and inexpensive access to high-quality healthcare services for the avoidance, identification, and management of drug-resistant diseases. The report signals increasing resistance to antibiotics in bacterial infections in humans and the need for better data. In conclusion, the prevalence of AMR in Asia is a significant public health concern, and it is crucial to implement policies and interventions to overcome it.

Bioselective and Radiopaque Zinc-Biopolymeric Complex-Based Porous Biomaterials Promote Mammalian Tissue Ingrowth In Vivo While Inhibiting Microbial Biofilm Gene Expression and Biofilm Formation

Metal-organic complexes have shown astounding bioactive properties; however, they are rarely explored as biomaterials. Recent studies showed that carboxymethyl-chitosan (CMC) genipin-conjugated zinc biomimetic scaffolds have unique bioselective properties. The biomaterial was reported to be mammalian cell-friendly; at the same time, it was found to discourage microbial biofilm formation on its surface, which seemed to be a promising solution to addressing the problem of trauma-associated biofilm formation and development of antimicrobial resistance. However, the mechanically frail characteristics and zinc overload raise concerns and limit the potential of the said biomaterials. Hence, the present work is focused on improving the strength of the earlier scaffold formulations, testing its in vivo efficacy and reaffirming its action against biofilm-forming microbe Staphylococcus aureus. Scaling up of CMC proportion increased rigidity, and 8% CMC was found to be the ideal concentration for robust scaffold fabrication. Freeze-dried CMC scaffolds with or without genipin (GP) cross-linking were conjugated with zinc using 2 M zinc acetate solution. Characterization results indicated that the CMC-Zn scaffolds, without genipin, showed mechanical properties close to bone fillers, resist in vitro enzymatic degradation until 4 weeks, are porous in nature, and have radiopacity close to mandibular bones. Upon implantation in a subcutaneous pocket of Wistar rats, the scaffolds showed tissue in-growth with simultaneous degradation without any signs of toxicity past 28 days. Neither were there any signs of toxicity in any of the vital organs. Considering many superior properties among the other formulations, the CMC-Zn scaffolds were furthered for biofilm studies. CMC-Zn showed negligible S. aureus biofilm formation on its surface as revealed by an alamar blue-based study. RT-PCR analysis revealed that CMC-Zn downregulated the expression of pro-biofilm effector genes such as icaC and clfB. A protein docking study predicted the inhibitory mechanism of CMC-Zn. Although it binds strongly when alone, at high density, it may cause inactivation of the transmembrane upstream activators of the said genes, thereby preventing their dimerization and subsequent inactivation of the effector genes. In conclusion, zinc-conjugated carboxymethyl-chitosan scaffolds are mechanically robust, porous, yet biodegradable, harmless to the host in the long term, they are radiopaque and prevent biofilm gene expression in notorious microbes; hence, they could be a suitable candidate for bone filler applications.

Solvent-Induced Lignin Conformation Changes Affect Synthesis and Antibacterial Performance of Silver Nanoparticle

The emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria necessitates the development of novel, sustainable, and biocompatible antibacterial agents. This study addresses cytotoxicity and environmental concerns associated with traditional silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) by exploring lignin, a readily available and renewable biopolymer, as a platform for AgNPs. We present a novel one-pot synthesis method for lignin-based AgNPs (AgNPs@AL) nanocomposites, achieving rapid synthesis within 5 min. This method utilizes various organic solvents, demonstrating remarkable adaptability to a wide range of lignin-dissolving systems. Characterization reveals uniform AgNP size distribution and morphology influenced by the chosen solvent. This adaptability suggests the potential for incorporating lignin-loaded antibacterial drugs alongside AgNPs, enabling combined therapy in a single nanocomposite. Antibacterial assays demonstrate exceptional efficacy against both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, with gamma-valerolactone (GVL)-assisted synthesized AgNPs exhibiting the most potent effect. Mechanistic studies suggest a combination of factors contributes to the antibacterial activity, including direct membrane damage caused by AgNPs and sustained silver ion release, ultimately leading to bacterial cell death. This work presents a straightforward, adaptable, and rapid approach for synthesizing biocompatible AgNPs@AL nanocomposites with outstanding antibacterial activity. These findings offer a promising and sustainable alternative to traditional antibiotics, contributing to the fight against antibiotic resistance while minimizing environmental impact.

Unveiling the Role of Exosomes in the Pathophysiology of Sepsis: Insights into Organ Dysfunction and Potential Biomarkers

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are tools for intercellular communication, mediating molecular transport processes. Emerging studies have revealed that EVs are significantly involved in immune processes, including sepsis. Sepsis, a dysregulated immune response to infection, triggers systemic inflammation and multi-organ dysfunction, posing a life-threatening condition. Although extensive research has been conducted on animals, the complex inflammatory mechanisms that cause sepsis-induced organ failure in humans are still not fully understood. Recent studies have focused on secreted exosomes, which are small extracellular vesicles from various body cells, and have shed light on their involvement in the pathophysiology of sepsis. During sepsis, exosomes undergo changes in content, concentration, and function, which significantly affect the metabolism of endothelia, cardiovascular functions, and coagulation. Investigating the role of exosome content in the pathogenesis of sepsis shows promise for understanding the molecular basis of human sepsis. This review explores the contributions of activated immune cells and diverse body cells' secreted exosomes to vital organ dysfunction in sepsis, providing insights into potential molecular biomarkers for predicting organ failure in septic shock.

Remodeling Intestinal Microbiota Alleviates Severe Combined Hyperlipidemia-Induced Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis and Atherosclerosis in LDLR-/- Hamsters

Combined hyperlipidemia (CHL) manifests as elevated cholesterol and triglycerides, associated with fatty liver and cardiovascular diseases. Emerging evidence underscores the crucial role of the intestinal microbiota in metabolic disorders. However, the potential therapeutic viability of remodeling the intestinal microbiota in CHL remains uncertain. In this study, CHL was induced in low-density lipoprotein receptor-deficient (LDLR-/-) hamsters through an 8-week high-fat and high-cholesterol (HFHC) diet or a 4-month high-cholesterol (HC) diet. Placebo or antibiotics were administered through separate or cohousing approaches. Analysis through 16S rDNA sequencing revealed that intermittent antibiotic treatment and the cohousing approach effectively modulated the gut microbiota community without impacting its overall abundance in LDLR-/- hamsters exhibiting severe CHL. Antibiotic treatment mitigated HFHC diet-induced obesity, hyperglycemia, and hyperlipidemia, enhancing thermogenesis and alleviating nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), concurrently reducing atherosclerotic lesions in LDLR-/- hamsters. Metabolomic analysis revealed a favorable liver lipid metabolism profile. Increased levels of microbiota-derived metabolites, notably butyrate and glycylglycine, also ameliorated NASH and atherosclerosis in HFHC diet-fed LDLR-/- hamsters. Notably, antibiotics, butyrate, and glycylglycine treatment exhibited protective effects in LDLR-/- hamsters on an HC diet, aligning with outcomes observed in the HFHC diet scenario. Our findings highlight the efficacy of remodeling gut microbiota through antibiotic treatment and cohousing in improving obesity, NASH, and atherosclerosis associated with refractory CHL. Increased levels of beneficial microbiota-derived metabolites suggest a potential avenue for microbiome-mediated therapies in addressing CHL-associated diseases.

Combinatorial discovery of antibacterials via a feature-fusion based machine learning workflow

The discovery of new antibacterials within the vast chemical space is crucial in combating drug-resistant bacteria such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). However, the traditional approach of screening the entire chemical library in an ergodic manner can be laborious and time-consuming. Machine learning-assisted screening of antibacterials alleviates the exploration effort but suffers from the lack of reliable and related datasets. To address these challenges, we devised a combinatorial library comprising over 110 000 candidates based on the Ugi reaction. A focused library was subsequently generated through uniform sampling of the entire library to narrow down the preliminary screening scale. A novel feature-fusion architecture called the latent space constraint neural network was developed which incorporated both fingerprint and physicochemical molecular descriptors to predict the antibacterial properties. This integration allowed the model to leverage the complementary information provided by these descriptors and improve the accuracy of predictions. Three lead compounds that demonstrated excellent efficacy against MRSA while alleviating drug resistance were identified. This workflow highlights the integration of machine learning with the combinatorial chemical library to expedite high-quality data collection and extensive data mining for antibacterial screening.

Nanomaterials for the treatment of bacterial infection by photothermal/photodynamic synergism

In the past few decades, great progress has been made in the field of nanomaterials against bacterial infection. However, with the widespread emergence of drug-resistant bacteria, people try their best to explore and develop new antibacterial strategies to fight bacteria without obtaining or increasing drug resistance. Recently, multi-mode synergistic therapy has been considered as an effective scheme for the treatment of bacterial infections, especially the combination of photothermal therapy (PTT) and photodynamic therapy (PDT) with controllable, non-invasive, small side effects and broad-spectrum antibacterial characteristics. It can not only improve the efficiency of antibiotics, but also do not promote antibiotic resistance. Therefore, multifunctional nanomaterials which combine the advantages of PTT and PDT are more and more used in the treatment of bacterial infections. However, there is still a lack of a comprehensive review of the synergistic effect of PTT and PDT in anti-infection. This review first focuses on the synthesis of synergistic photothermal/photodynamic nanomaterials and discusses the ways and challenges of photothermal/photodynamic synergism, as well as the future research direction of photothermal/photodynamic synergistic antibacterial nanomaterials.

Combination of 2-tert-Butyl-1,4-Benzoquinone (TBQ) and ZnO Nanoparticles, a New Strategy To Inhibit Biofilm Formation and Virulence Factors of Chromobacterium violaceum

Drug-resistant bacteria have been raising serious social problems. Bacterial biofilms and different virulence factors are the main reasons for persistent infections. As a conditioned pathogen, Chromobacterium violaceum has evolved a vast network of regulatory mechanisms to modify and fine-tune biofilm development, contributing to multidrug resistance. However, there are few therapies to combat drug-resistant bacteria. Quorum sensing (QS) inhibitors (QSIs) are a promising strategy to solve antibiotic resistance. Our previous work suggested that 2-tert-butyl-1,4-benzoquinone (TBQ) is a potent QSI. In this study, the combination of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs) and TBQ (ZnO-TBQ) was investigated for the treatment of Chromobacterium violaceum ATCC 12472 infection. ZnO-NPs attach to cell walls or biofilms, and the local dissolution of ZnO-NPs can lead to increased Zn²⁺ concentrations, which could destroy metal homeostasis, corresponding to disturbances in amino acid metabolism and nucleic acid metabolism. ZnO-NPs significantly improved the efficiency of TBQ in inhibiting the QS-related virulence factors and biofilm formation of C. violaceum ATCC 12472. ZnO-TBQ effectively reduces the expression of genes related to QS, which is conducive to limiting the infectivity of C. violaceum ATCC 12472. Caenorhabditis elegans nematodes treated with ZnO-TBQ presented a significant improvement in the survival rate by 46.7%. Overall, the combination of ZnO-NPs and TBQ offers a new strategy to attenuate virulence factors and biofilm formation synergistically in some drug-resistant bacteria. IMPORTANCE The combination of ZnO-NPs and TBQ (ZnO-TBQ) can compete with the inducer N-decanoyl-homoserine lactone (C₁₀-HSL) by binding to CviR and downregulate genes related to the CviI/CviR system to interrupt the QS system of C. violaceum ATCC 12472. The downstream genes responding to cviR were also downregulated so that virulence factors and biofilm formation were inhibited. Furthermore, ZnO-TBQ presents multiple metabolic disturbances in C. violaceum ATCC 12472, which results in the reduced multidrug resistance and pathogenicity of C. violaceum ATCC 12472. In an in vivo assay, C. elegans nematodes treated with ZnO-TBQ presented a significant improvement in the survival rate by 46.7% by limiting the infectivity of C. violaceum ATCC 12472. In addition, ZnO-TBQ inhibited the generation of virulence factors and biofilm formation 2-fold compared to either ZnO-NPs or TBQ alone. The combination of ZnO-NPs with TBQ offers a potent synergistic strategy to reduce multidrug resistance and pathogenicity.

Antibacterial Carbon Dots-Based Composites

The emergence and global spread of bacterial resistance to conventionally used antibiotics have highlighted the urgent need for new antimicrobial agents that might replace antibiotics. Currently, nanomaterials hold considerable promise as antimicrobial agents in anti-inflammatory therapy. Due to their distinctive functional physicochemical characteristics and exceptional biocompatibility, carbon dots (CDs)-based composites have attracted a lot of attention in the context of these antimicrobial nanomaterials. Here, a thorough assessment of current developments in the field of antimicrobial CDs-based composites is provided, starting with a brief explanation of the general synthesis procedures, categorization, and physicochemical characteristics of CDs-based composites. The many processes driving the antibacterial action of these composites are then thoroughly described, including physical destruction, oxidative stress, and the incorporation of antimicrobial agents. Finally, the obstacles that CDs-based composites now suffer in combating infectious diseases are outlined and investigated, along with the potential applications of antimicrobial CDs-based composites.

Antimicrobial antibodies by phage display: Identification of antibody-based inhibitor against mycobacterium tuberculosis isocitrate lyase

The increasing incidence reports of antibiotic resistance highlights the need for alternative approaches to deal with bacterial infections. This brought about the idea of utilizing monoclonal antibodies as an alternative antibacterial treatment. Majority of the studies are focused on developing antibodies to bacterial surface antigens, with little emphasis on antibodies that inhibit the growth mechanisms of a bacteria host. Isocitrate lyase (ICL) is an important enzyme for the growth and survival of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) during latent infection as a result of its involvement in the mycobacterial glyoxylate and methylisocitrate cycles. It is postulated that the inhibition of ICL can disrupt the life cycle of MTB. To this extent, we utilized antibody phage display to identify a single chain fragment variable (scFv) antibody against the recombinant ICL protein from MTB. The soluble a-ICL-C6 scFv clone exhibited good binding characteristics with high specificity against ICL. More importantly, the clone exhibited in vitro inhibitory effect with an enzymatic assay resulting in a decrease of ICL enzymatic activity. In silico analysis showed that the scFv-ICL interactions are driven by 23 hydrogen bonds and 13 salt bridges that might disrupt the formation of ICL subunits for the tertiary structure or the formation of active site β domain. However, further validation is necessary to confirm if the isolated clone is indeed a good inhibitor against ICL for application against MTB.

Antibiotic resistant bacteria: current situation and treatment options to accelerate the development of a new antimicrobial arsenal

INTRODUCTION

Antibiotic resistance is one of the biggest public health threats worldwide. Currently, antibiotic-resistant bacteria kill 700,000 people every year. These data represent the near future in which we find ourselves, a "post-antibiotic era" where the identification and development of new treatments are key. This review is focused on the current and emerging antimicrobial therapies which can solve this global threat.

AREAS COVERED

Through a literature search using databases such as Medline and Web of Science, and search engines such as Google Scholar, different antimicrobial therapies were analyzed, including pathogen-oriented therapy, phagotherapy, microbiota and antivirulent therapy. Additionally, the development pathways of new antibiotics were described, emphasizing on the potential advantages that the combination of a drug repurposing strategy with the application of mathematical prediction models could bring to solve the problem of AMRs.

EXPERT OPINION

This review offers several starting points to solve a single problem: reducing the number of AMR. The data suggest that the strategies described could provide many benefits to improve antimicrobial treatments. However, the development of new antimicrobials remains necessary. Drug repurposing, with the application of mathematical prediction models, is considered to be of interest due to its rapid and effective potential to increase the current therapeutic arsenal.

Real-Time Fluorescence Microscopy on Living E. coli Sheds New Light on the Antibacterial Effects of the King Penguin β-Defensin AvBD103b

(1) Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are a promising alternative to conventional antibiotics. Among AMPs, the disulfide-rich β-defensin AvBD103b, whose antibacterial activities are not inhibited by salts contrary to most other β-defensins, is particularly appealing. Information about the mechanisms of action is mandatory for the development and approval of new drugs. However, data for non-membrane-disruptive AMPs such as β-defensins are scarce, thus they still remain poorly understood. (2) We used single-cell fluorescence imaging to monitor the effects of a β-defensin (namely AvBD103b) in real time, on living E. coli, and at the physiological concentration of salts. (3) We obtained key parameters to dissect the mechanism of action. The cascade of events, inferred from our precise timing of membrane permeabilization effects, associated with the timing of bacterial growth arrest, differs significantly from the other antimicrobial compounds that we previously studied in the same physiological conditions. Moreover, the AvBD103b mechanism does not involve significant stereo-selective interaction with any chiral partner, at any step of the process. (4) The results are consistent with the suggestion that after penetrating the outer membrane and the cytoplasmic membrane, AvBD103b interacts non-specifically with a variety of polyanionic targets, leading indirectly to cell death.

Mammals' humoral immune proteins and peptides targeting the bacterial envelope: from natural protection to therapeutic applications against multidrug‐resistant Gram ‐negatives

Mammalian innate immunity employs several humoral ‘weapons’ that target the bacterial envelope. The threats posed by the multidrug‐resistant ‘ESKAPE’ Gram‐negative pathogens (Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Enterobacter spp.) are forcing researchers to explore new therapeutic options, including the use of these immune elements. Here we review bacterial envelope‐targeting (peptidoglycan and/or membrane‐targeting) proteins/peptides of the mammalian immune system that are most likely to have therapeutic applications. Firstly we discuss their general features and protective activity against ESKAPE Gram‐negatives in the host. We then gather, integrate, and discuss recent research on experimental therapeutics harnessing their bactericidal power, based on their exogenous administration and also on the discovery of bacterial and/or host targets that improve the performance of this endogenous immunity, as a novel therapeutic concept. We identify weak points and knowledge gaps in current research in this field and suggest areas for future work to obtain successful envelope‐targeting therapeutic options to tackle the challenge of antimicrobial resistance.

Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Exosome Therapy of Microbial Diseases: From Bench to Bed

Microbial diseases are a global health threat, leading to tremendous casualties and economic losses. The strategy to treat microbial diseases falls into two broad categories: pathogen-directed therapy (PDT) and host-directed therapy (HDT). As the typical PDT, antibiotics or antiviral drugs directly attack bacteria or viruses through discerning specific molecules. However, drug abuse could result in antimicrobial resistance and increase infectious disease morbidity. Recently, the exosome therapy, as a HDT, has attracted extensive attentions for its potential in limiting infectious complications and targeted drug delivery. Mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes (MSC-Exos) are the most broadly investigated. In this review, we mainly focus on the development and recent advances of the application of MSC-Exos on microbial diseases. The review starts with the difficulties and current strategies in antimicrobial treatments, followed by a comprehensive overview of exosomes in aspect of isolation, identification, contents, and applications. Then, the underlying mechanisms of the MSC-Exo therapy in microbial diseases are discussed in depth, mainly including immunomodulation, repression of excessive inflammation, and promotion of tissue regeneration. In addition, we highlight the latest progress in the clinical translation of the MSC-Exo therapy, by summarizing related clinical trials, routes of administration, and exosome modifications. This review will provide fundamental insights and future perspectives on MSC-Exo therapy in microbial diseases from bench to bedside.

Pomegranate-Like CuO2@SiO2 Nanospheres as H2O2 Self-Supplying and Robust Oxygen Generators for Enhanced Antibacterial Activity

Reactive oxygen species (ROS)-induced nanosystems represent one of the most essential, efficient, and encouraging nanobactericides for eliminating bacterial infection concerning the increasing resistance threats of existing antibiotics. Among them, Fenton-type metal peroxide nanoparticles are exciting nanomaterials with intriguing physiochemical properties, yet the study of this antimicrobial agent is still in its infancy. Herein, a robust pH-responsive Fenton nanosystem is constructed by the assembly of copper peroxide nanodots in pomegranate-like mesoporous silica nanoshells (CuO₂@SiO₂) that are capable of self-supplying H₂O₂ and sustainably generating O₂. The enhanced antimicrobial performance is attributed to the pH responsiveness and excellent Fenton catalytic activity through either the Cu²⁺-catalyzed conversion of H₂O₂ to detrimental ROS under acid treatment or in situ O₂ evolution in neutral media. Moreover, in vitro and in vivo investigations demonstrate that this nanocomposite can exhibit boosted antimicrobial capabilities and can significantly accelerate skin wound closure, while retaining outstanding cytocompatibility and hemocompatibility. Given its excellent physicochemical and antimicrobial properties, the broad application of this nanocomposite in bacteria-associated wound management is anticipated.

Low-Temperature Photothermal Therapy: Strategies and Applications

Although photothermal therapy (PTT) with the assistance of nanotechnology has been considered as an indispensable strategy in the biomedical field, it still encounters some severe problems that need to be solved. Excessive heat can induce treated cells to develop thermal resistance, and thus, the efficacy of PTT may be dramatically decreased. In the meantime, the uncontrollable diffusion of heat can pose a threat to the surrounding healthy tissues. Recently, low-temperature PTT (also known as mild PTT or mild-temperature PTT) has demonstrated its remarkable capacity of conquering these obstacles and has shown excellent performance in bacterial elimination, wound healing, and cancer treatments. Herein, we summarize the recently proposed strategies for achieving low-temperature PTT based on nanomaterials and introduce the synthesis, characteristics, and applications of these nanoplatforms. Additionally, the combination of PTT and other therapeutic modalities for defeating cancers and the synergistic cancer therapeutic effect of the combined treatments are discussed. Finally, the current limitations and future directions are proposed for inspiring more researchers to make contributions to promoting low-temperature PTT toward more successful preclinical and clinical disease treatments.

Macrocycle-Antibiotic Hybrids: A Path to Clinical Candidates

The tale of abate in antibiotics continued defense mechanisms that chaperone the rise of drug-defying superbugs—on the other hand, the astray in antibacterial drug discovery and development. Our salvation lies in circumventing the genesis of resistance. Considering the competitive advantages of antibacterial chemotherapeutic agents equipped with multiple warheads against resistance, the development of hybrids has rejuvenated. The adoption of antibiotic hybrid paradigm to macrocycles has advanced novel chemical entities to clinical trials. The multi-targeted TD-1792, for instance, retained potent antibacterial activities against multiple strains that are resistant to its constituent, vancomycin. Moreover, the antibiotic conjugation of rifamycins has provided hybrid clinical candidates with desirable efficacy and safety profiles. In 2020, the U.S. FDA has granted an orphan drug designation to TNP-2092, a conjugate of rifamycin and fluoroquinolone, for the treatment of prosthetic joint infections. DSTA4637S is a pioneer antibacterial agent under clinical development and represents a novel class of bacterial therapy, that is, antibody–antibiotic conjugates. DSTA4637S is effective against the notorious persistent S. aureus bacteremia, a revelation of the abracadabra potential of antibiotic hybrid approaches.