Upright imaging of Drosophila embryos

Tissue landscape alters adjacent cell fates during Drosophila egg development

Extracellular signalling molecules control many biological processes, but the influence of tissue architecture on the local concentrations of these factors is unclear. Here we examine this issue in the Drosophila egg chamber, where two anterior cells secrete Unpaired (Upd) to activate Signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) signalling in the epithelium. High STAT signalling promotes cell motility. Genetic analysis shows that all cells near the Upd source can respond. However, using upright imaging, we show surprising asymmetries in STAT activation patterns, suggesting that some cells experience different Upd levels than predicted by their location. We develop a three-dimensional mathematical model to characterize the spatio-temporal distribution of the activator. Simulations show that irregular tissue domains can produce asymmetric distributions of Upd, consistent with results in vivo. Mutant analysis substantiates this idea. We conclude that cellular landscape can heavily influence the effect of diffusible activators and should be more widely considered.

Upright imaging of Drosophila egg chambers

Drosophila melanogaster oogenesis provides an ideal context for studying varied developmental processes since the ovary is relatively simple in architecture, is well-characterized, and is amenable to genetic analysis. Each egg chamber consists of germ-line cells surrounded by a single epithelial layer of somatic follicle cells. Subsets of follicle cells undergo differentiation during specific stages to become several different cell types. Standard techniques primarily allow for a lateral view of egg chambers, and therefore a limited view of follicle cell organization and identity. The upright imaging protocol describes a mounting technique that enables a novel, vertical view of egg chambers with a standard confocal microscope. Samples are first mounted between two layers of glycerin jelly in a lateral (horizontal) position on a glass microscope slide. The jelly with encased egg chambers is then cut into blocks, transferred to a coverslip, and flipped to position egg chambers upright. Mounted egg chambers can be imaged on either an upright or an inverted confocal microscope. This technique enables the study of follicle cell specification, organization, molecular markers, and egg development with new detail and from a new perspective.

Variation in the dorsal gradient distribution is a source for modified scaling of germ layers in Drosophila

Specification of germ layers along the dorsoventral axis by morphogenetic gradients is an ideal model to study scaling properties of gradients and cell fate changes during evolution. Classical anatomical studies in divergent insects (e.g., flies and grasshoppers) revealed that the neuroectodermal size is conserved and originates similar numbers of neuroblasts of homologous identity. In contrast, mesodermal domains vary significantly in closely related Drosophila species. To further investigate the underlying mechanisms of scaling of germ layers across Drosophila species, we quantified the Dorsal (Dl)/NF-κB gradient, the main morphogenetic gradient that initiates separation of the mesoderm, neuroectoderm, and ectoderm. We discovered a variable range of Toll activation across species and found that Dl activates mesodermal genes at the same threshold levels in melanogaster sibling species. We also show that the Dl gradient distribution can be modulated by nuclear size and packing densities. We propose that variation in mesodermal size occurs at a fast evolutionary rate and is an important mechanism to define the ventral boundary of the neuroectoderm.

A computational statistics approach for estimating the spatial range of morphogen gradients

A crucial issue in studies of morphogen gradients relates to their range: the distance over which they can act as direct regulators of cell signaling, gene expression and cell differentiation. To address this, we present a straightforward statistical framework that can be used in multiple developmental systems. We illustrate the developed approach by providing a point estimate and confidence interval for the spatial range of the graded distribution of nuclear Dorsal, a transcription factor that controls the dorsoventral pattern of the Drosophila embryo.

A microfluidic array for large-scale ordering and orientation of embryos

Quantitative studies of embryogenesis require the ability to monitor pattern formation and morphogenesis in large numbers of embryos, at multiple time points and in diverse genetic backgrounds. We describe a simple approach that greatly facilitates these tasks for Drosophila melanogaster embryos, one of the most advanced models of developmental genetics. Based on passive hydrodynamics, we developed a microfluidic embryo-trap array that can be used to rapidly order and vertically orient hundreds of embryos. We describe the physical principles of the design and used this platform to quantitatively analyze multiple morphogen gradients in the dorsoventral patterning system. Our approach can also be used for live imaging and, with slight modifications, could be adapted for studies of pattern formation and morphogenesis in other model organisms.