High resolution combined molecular and structural optical imaging of colorectal cancer in a xenograft mouse model

With the emergence of immunotherapies for cancer treatment, there is a rising clinical need to visualize the tumor microenvironment (TME) non-invasively in detail, which could be crucial to predict the efficacy of therapy. Nuclear imaging techniques enable whole-body imaging but lack the required spatial resolution. Conversely, near-infrared immunofluorescence (immuno-NIRF) is able to reveal tumor cells and/or other cell subsets in the TME by targeting the expression of a specific membrane receptor with fluorescently labeled monoclonal antibodies (mAb). Optical coherence tomography (OCT) provides three-dimensional morphological imaging of tissues without exogenous contrast agents. The combination of the two allows molecular and structural contrast at a resolution of ~15 µm, allowing for the specific location of a cell-type target with immuno-NIRF as well as revealing the three-dimensional architectural context with OCT. For the first time, combined immuno-NIRF and OCT of a tumor is demonstrated in situ in a xenograft mouse model of human colorectal cancer, targeted by a clinically-safe fluorescent mAb, revealing unprecedented details of the TME. A handheld scanner for ex vivo examination and an endoscope designed for imaging bronchioles in vivo are presented. This technique promises to complement nuclear imaging for diagnosing cancer invasiveness, precisely determining tumor margins, and studying the biodistribution of newly developed antibodies in high detail.

Double-clad fiber coupler for partially coherent detection

Double-clad fibers (DCF) have many advantages in fibered confocal microscopes as they allow for coherent illumination through their core and partially coherent detection through their inner cladding. We report a double-clad fiber coupler (DCFC) made from small inner cladding DCF that preserves optical sectioning in confocal microscopy while increasing collection efficiency and reducing coherent effects. Due to the small inner cladding, previously demonstrated fabrication methods could not be translated to this coupler's fabrication. To make such a coupler possible, we introduce in this article three new design concepts. The resulting DCFC fabricated using two custom fibers and a modified fusion-tapering technique achieves high multimodal extraction (≥70 %) and high single mode transmission (≥80 %). Its application to reflectance confocal microscopy showed a 30-fold increase in detected signal intensity, a 4-fold speckle contrast reduction with a penalty in axial resolution of a factor 2. This coupler paves the way towards more efficient confocal microscopes for clinical applications.

Laser tissue coagulation and concurrent optical coherence tomography through a double-clad fiber coupler

Double-clad fiber (DCF) is herein used in conjunction with a double-clad fiber coupler (DCFC) to enable simultaneous and co-registered optical coherence tomography (OCT) and laser tissue coagulation. The DCF allows a single channel fiber-optic probe to be shared: i.e. the core propagating the OCT signal while the inner cladding delivers the coagulation laser light. We herein present a novel DCFC designed and built to combine both signals within a DCF (>90% of single-mode transmission; >65% multimode coupling). Potential OCT imaging degradation mechanisms are also investigated and solutions to mitigate them are presented. The combined DCFC-based system was used to induce coagulation of an ex vivo swine esophagus allowing a real-time assessment of thermal dynamic processes. We therefore demonstrate a DCFC-based system combining OCT imaging with laser coagulation through a single fiber, thus enabling both modalities to be performed simultaneously and in a co-registered manner. Such a system enables endoscopic image-guided laser marking of superficial epithelial tissues or laser thermal therapy of epithelial lesions in pathologies such as Barrett's esophagus.

Light-guided localization within tissue using biocompatible surgical suture fiber as an optical waveguide

In breast-conserving surgery, an optical wire is a useful surgical guiding tool to optically locate small lesions within the breast tissue. However, the use of a long silica glass fiber as the optical wire can be burdensome to patients because of its stiffness and nonbiocompatibility. We investigate the use of a biocompatible fiber for light localization in tissue. A surgical suture with a diameter of 400 μm and a few centimeters long is employed as the biocompatible optical waveguide to transport the visible laser light to the inner tissue site. Optical location is confirmed with glow ball-like red laser illumination at the tip of the suture embedded within a fresh chicken breast tissue. Effective optical power coupling to the suture is made by using a double-cladding fiber coupler. From this preliminary result, we realize practical light localization with biopolymer waveguides.

Review of diverse optical fibers used in biomedical research and clinical practice

Optical fiber technology has significantly bolstered the growth of photonics applications in basic life sciences research and in biomedical diagnosis, therapy, monitoring, and surgery. The unique operational characteristics of diverse fibers have been exploited to realize advanced biomedical functions in areas such as illumination, imaging, minimally invasive surgery, tissue ablation, biological sensing, and tissue diagnosis. This review paper provides the necessary background to understand how optical fibers function, to describe the various categories of available fibers, and to illustrate how specific fibers are used for selected biomedical photonics applications. Research articles and vendor data sheets were consulted to describe the operational characteristics of conventional and specialty multimode and single-mode solid-core fibers, double-clad fibers, hard-clad silica fibers, conventional hollow-core fibers, photonic crystal fibers, polymer optical fibers, side-emitting and side-firing fibers, middle-infrared fibers, and optical fiber bundles. Representative applications from the recent literature illustrate how various fibers can be utilized in a wide range of biomedical disciplines. In addition to helping researchers refine current experimental setups, the material in this review paper will help conceptualize and develop emerging optical fiber-based diagnostic and analysis tools.

Raman probes based on optically-poled double-clad fiber and coupler

Two fiber Raman probes are presented, one based on an optically-poled double-clad fiber and the second based on an optically-poled double-clad fiber coupler respectively. Optical poling of the core of the fiber allows for the generation of enough 532nm light to perform Raman spectroscopy of a sample of dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), when illuminating the waveguide with 1064nm laser light. The Raman signal is collected in the inner cladding, from which it is retrieved with either a bulk dichroic mirror or a double-clad fiber coupler. The coupler allows for a substantial reduction of the fiber spectral background signal conveyed to the spectrometer.

Double-clad fiber with a tapered end for confocal endomicroscopy

We present a double-clad fiber coupler (DCFC) for use in confocal endomicroscopy to reduce speckle contrast, increase signal collection while preserving optical sectioning. The DCFC is made by incorporating a double-clad tapered fiber (DCTF) to a fused-tapered DCFC for achromatic transmission (from 1265 nm to 1325 nm) of > 95% illumination light trough the single mode (SM) core and collection of > 40% diffuse light through inner cladding modes. Its potential for confocal endomicroscopy is demonstrated in a spectrally-encoded imaging setup which shows a 3 times reduction in speckle contrast as well as 5.5 × increase in signal collection compared to imaging with a SM fiber.

Microlensed dual-fiber probe for depth-resolved fluorescence measurements

We propose and demonstrate a compact microlensed dual-fiber probe that has a good collection efficiency and a high depth-resolution ability for fluorescence measurements. The probe is formed with a conventional fusion splicer creating a common focusing lens on two fibers placed side by side. The collection efficiency of the fabricated probe was evaluated by measuring the fluorescence signal of a fresh ginkgo leaf. It was shown experimentally that the proposed probe could effectively collect the fluorescence signal with a six-fold increase compared to that of a general flat-tipped probe. The beam propagation method was used to design a probe with an optimized working distance and an improved resolving depth. It was found that the working distance depends mainly on the radius of curvature of the lens, whereas the resolving depth is determined by the core diameters of the illumination and collection fibers. The depth-resolved ability of probes with working distances of ~100 μm and 300 μm was validated by using a two-layer tissue phantom. The experimental results demonstrate that the microlensed dual-fiber probe has the potential to facilitate depth-resolved fluorescence detection of epithelial tissue.

Multimodal analysis of pearls and pearl treatments by using optical coherence tomography and fluorescence spectroscopy

We present an integrated optical system that consists of optical coherence tomography (OCT) and laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) spectroscopy for multimodal analysis of pearls and pearl treatments. The OCT source and the LIF excitation beams were aligned together to illuminate the same spot of a pearl fixed on the sample stage that was under rotation. As a result, both OCT images and LIF spectra of the pearls were detected at the same time and also at the same place. For OCT, a 1310 nm-centered swept laser source was used. For LIF, a 405 nm laser diode was used and a lensed multimode fiber was utilized as a fluorescence probe. The tomographic investigation on the internal structure of a pearl allowed us to evaluate and categorize the pearl nondestructively as was previously reported. In addition, the measurements of fluorescence spectrum and its decaying rate helped to determine the species of mother oyster. The proposed multimodal analysis made it possible to classify the pearls and also to disclose the treatments made on the pearls.

Nonlinear endomicroscopy using a double-clad fiber coupler

A double-clad fiber coupler is developed to be used in two-photon-excited fluorescence endomicroscopy to replace a dichroic mirror and separate the fluorescence signal from the excitation laser beam. With the double-clad fiber coupler, the endomicroscope becomes more compact, easier to be aligned, and more stable in alignment. The double-clad fiber coupler can transmit 62% of the excitation laser beam through the core. The fluorescence collection efficiency of the double-clad fiber coupler is 34%, which is, to the best of our knowledge, the highest fluorescence collection efficiency achieved by couplers used in two-photon-excited fluorescence endomicroscopes. As a result, the contrast of endomicroscopy imaging is enhanced.