Oxymatrine inhibits proliferation of human bladder cancer T24 cells by inducing apoptosis and cell cycle arrest

Integration of phytotherapy and chemotherapy: Recent advances in anticancer molecular pathways

Cancer is a disease characterized by abnormal and uncontrolled growth of cells, leading to invasion and metastasis to other tissues. Chemotherapy drugs are some of the primary treatments for cancer, which could detrimentally affect the cancer cells by various molecular mechanisms like apoptosis and cell cycle arrest. These treatment lines have always aligned with side effects and drug resistance. Due to their anticancer effects, medicinal herbs and their active derivative compounds are being profoundly used as complementary treatments for cancer. Many studies have shown that herbal ingredients exert antitumor activities and immune-modulation effects and have fewer side effects. On the other hand, combining phytotherapy and chemotherapy, with their synergistic effects, has gained much attention across the medical community. This review article discussed the therapeutic effects of essential herbal active ingredients combined with chemotherapeutic drugs in cancer therapy. To write this article, PubMed and Scopus database were searched with the keywords "Cancer," "Combination," "Herbal," "Traditional," and "Natural." After applying inclusion/exclusion criteria, 110 articles were considered. The study shows the anticancer effects of the active herbal ingredients by inducing apoptosis and cell cycle arrest in cancer cells, especially with a chemotherapeutic agent. This study also indicates that herbal compounds can reduce side effects and dosage, potentiate anticancer responses, and sensitize cancer cells to chemotherapy drugs.

Oxymatrine suppresses oral squamous cell carcinoma progression by suppressing CXC chemokine receptor 4 in an m6A modification decrease dependent manner

Oxymatrine has been revealed to exert antitumor activity; however, its role in oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) remains unclear. In the present study, the effects and underlying molecular mechanisms of oxymatrine in OSCC were explored. The antineoplastic effects of oxymatrine were measured using Cell Counting Kit‑8, apoptosis and Transwell assays. The inhibitory effect of oxymatrine on tumor growth was evaluated in vivo. The regulation of oxymatrine on the CXC chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4) was analyzed using western blotting, reverse transcription‑quantitative PCR, RNA stability and methylated RNA immunoprecipitation assays. The present results revealed that oxymatrine inhibited the proliferation and migration of OSCC cells and promoted cell apoptosis. Furthermore, oxymatrine reduced CXCR4 mRNA and protein expression levels by promoting CXCR4 mRNA degradation. Mechanistically, oxymatrine inhibited the methylation at the N6‑position of adenosine (m⁶A modification) of CXCR4 mRNA by decreasing the expression of the methyltransferase‑like 3 (METTL3) gene. In addition, oxymatrine inhibited tumor growth in vivo. Taken together, our findings demonstrated the antitumor effect of oxymatrine on OSCC. Mechanistically, oxymatrine inhibited the progression of OSCC by downregulating METTL3 and degrading CXCR4 mRNA by decreasing the level of m⁶A modification.

Association between Arsenic Level, Gene Expression in Asian Population, and In Vitro Carcinogenic Bladder Tumor

The IARC classified arsenic (As) as "carcinogenic to humans." Despite the health consequences of arsenic exposure, there is no molecular signature available yet that can predict when exposure may lead to the development of disease. To understand the molecular processes underlying arsenic exposure and the risk of disease development, this study investigated the functional relationship between high arsenic exposure and disease risk using gene expression derived from human exposure. In this study, a three step analysis was employed: (1) the gene expression profiles obtained from two diverse arsenic-exposed Asian populations were utilized to identify differentially expressed genes associated with arsenic exposure in human subjects, (2) the gene expression profiles induced by arsenic exposure in four different myeloma cancer cell lines were used to define common genes and pathways altered by arsenic exposure, and (3) the genetic profiles of two publicly available human bladder cancer studies were used to test the significance of the common association of genes, identified in step 1 and step 2, to develop and validate a predictive model of primary bladder cancer risk associated with arsenic exposure. Our analysis shows that arsenic exposure to humans is mainly associated with organismal injury and abnormalities, immunological disease, inflammatory disease, gastrointestinal disease, and increased rates of a wide variety of cancers. In addition, arsenic exerts its toxicity by generating reactive oxygen species (ROS) and increasing ROS production causing the imbalance that leads to cell and tissue damage (oxidative stress). Oxidative stress activates inflammatory pathways leading to transformation of a normal cell to tumor cell specifically; there is significant evidence of the advancing changes in oxidative/nitrative stress during the progression of bladder cancer. Therefore, we examined the relation of differentially expressed genes due to exposure of arsenic in human and bladder cancer and developed a bladder cancer risk prediction model. In this study, integrin-linked kinase (ILK) was one of the most significant pathways identified between both arsenic exposed population which plays a key role in eliciting a protective response to oxidative damage in epidermal cells. On the other hand, several studies showed that arsenic trioxide (ATO) is useful for anticancer therapy although the mechanisms underlying its paradoxical effects are still not well understood. ATO has shown remarkable efficacy for the treatment of multiple myeloma; therefore, it will be helpful to understand the underlying cancer biology by which ATO exerts its inhibitory effect on the myeloma cells. Our study found that MAPK is one of the most active network between arsenic gene and ATO cell line which is involved in indicative of oxidative/nitrosative damage and well associated with the development of bladder cancer. The study identified a unique set of 147 genes associated with arsenic exposure and linked to molecular mechanisms of cancer. The risk prediction model shows the highest prediction ability for recurrent bladder tumors based on a very small subset (NKIRAS2, AKTIP, and HLA-DQA1) of the 147 genes resulting in AUC of 0.94 (95% CI: 0.744-0.995) and 0.75 (95% CI: 0.343-0.933) on training and validation data, respectively.

Natural Phytochemicals in Bladder Cancer Prevention and Therapy

Phytochemicals are natural small-molecule compounds derived from plants that have attracted attention for their anticancer activities. Some phytochemicals have been developed as first-line anticancer drugs, such as paclitaxel and vincristine. In addition, several phytochemicals show good tumor suppression functions in various cancer types. Bladder cancer is a malignant tumor of the urinary system. To date, few specific phytochemicals have been used for bladder cancer therapy, although many have been studied in bladder cancer cells and mouse models. Therefore, it is important to collate and summarize the available information on the role of phytochemicals in the prevention and treatment of bladder cancer. In this review, we summarize the effects of several phytochemicals including flavonoids, steroids, nitrogen compounds, and aromatic substances with anticancer properties and classify the mechanism of action of phytochemicals in bladder cancer. This review will contribute to facilitating the development of new anticancer drugs and strategies for the treatment of bladder cancer using phytochemicals.

Oxymatrine Inhibits Colorectal Cancer Metastasis via Attenuating PKM2-Mediated Aerobic Glycolysis

Background

Colorectal cancer (CRC), a type of highly occurred intestinal cancer at present, is prone to metastasis at the later stage of chemotherapy. Looking for the anti-metastatic agents from natural compounds attracted much concern. Here, it aims to demonstrate whether oxymatrine, an anti-cancer natural compound, has anti-metastatic activity and its potential significance in clinic.

Materials and Methods

Wound healing assay and transwell assay were for evaluating the effect of oxymatrine on cell migration and invasion in vitro. Anti-metastatic action in vivo was determined by hepatic metastasis of colorectal cancer cells in mice.

Results

Oxymatrine can significantly inhibit cancer cell migration and invasion in vitro. The production of ATP, pyruvate, and lactate was suppressed in CRC cells under the treatment of oxymatrine, as well as the glucose consumption. Meantime, extracellular acidification rates (ECR) were evidently attenuated although the oxygen consumption rates (OCR) were not affected. Both clued that oxymatrine inhibition of metastasis is possibly related to blocking aerobic glycolysis. Subsequent results indicated that pyruvate kinase M2 (PKM2) not hexokinase (HK) and phosphofructokinase (PFK) were involved in oxymatrine blocking glycolysis as the PKM2 kinase activity and expression were inhibited by oxymatrine and the PKM2 activator, TEPP-46, can reverse in part the effect of oxymatrine induced in CRC cells. Furthermore, this process was also mediated by inhibition of glucose transporter 1 (GLUT1). Finally, the in vivo metastatic model in mice showed both 20 mg/kg and 40 mg/kg oxymatrine significantly inhibit liver metastasis of CRC cells in mice, and PKM2 and GLUT1 expression in liver of the oxymatrine-treated group is declined.

Conclusion

Oxymatrine exerted anti-metastatic activity dependent on inhibition of PKM2-mediated aerobic glycolysis. It is not only an anti-cancer agent but also a potential anti-metastatic compound with clinical application significance.

Oxymatrine Inhibits Proliferation and Migration of Vulvar Squamous Cell Carcinoma Cells via Attenuation of the RAS/RAF/MEK/ERK Pathway

Purpose

To evaluate the anti-tumor effects of oxymatrine in vulvar squamous cell carcinoma (VSCC) cells and to explore the underlying mechanisms.

Methods

We selected SW962 and A431 VSCC cell lines. Cell proliferation was examined using MTT assay. Cell cycle and apoptosis were detected using flow cytometry. Migration and invasion were evaluated using transwell and wound-healing assays. The relevant protein expression and signaling pathways were analyzed using Western blotting.

Results

Oxymatrine inhibited the proliferation of SW962 and A431 VSCC cells in a time- and dose-dependent manner. Oxymatrine induced cell cycle arrest in the G2/M phase by increasing the protein expression of P21 and decreasing levels of cyclin B1 and CDC2. Oxymatrine upregulated the expression of cleaved-caspase 3 and BAX and downregulated the expression of BCL2, which led to an increase in apoptosis. Oxymatrine also suppressed the migration and invasion of SW962 and A431 cells by reducing levels of MMP2 and MMP9. After treatment with oxymatrine or a RAS inhibitor (salirasib), expression levels of RAS, p-RAF, p-MEK, p-ERK, C-MYC, and MMP2 were reduced. When TGF-β1 was used to stimulate SW962 and A431 cells, the expression of the above proteins increased; this increase was reversed by using oxymatrine or salirasib again.

Conclusion

Oxymatrine inhibits proliferation and migration of VSCC cells by blocking the RAS/RAF/MEK/ERK pathway.

MiR-425 Promotes Migration and Invasion in Bladder Cancer by Targeting Dickkopf 3

Background: Bladder cancer (BC) is a common malignancy with high morbidity and mortality. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are critical post-transcriptional regulators in various cancers. This study aimed to investigate the effect of miR-425 on the migration and invasion of BC.

Methods: The expression of miR-425 and Dickkopf 3 (DKK3) was examined in clinical BC specimens. T24 and 5637 BC cell lines were employed and transfected with miR-425 inhibitors. The correlation between miR-425 and DKK3 was determined by a luciferase reporter assay. Cell migration and invasion capacity were measured by wound healing and Transwell assays. The expression levels of DKK3, E-cadherin, N-cadherin and vimentin were analysed by Western blotting and qRT-PCR.

Results: miR-425 was negatively correlated with the expression of DKK3 in clinical BC specimens. Further studies identified DKK-3 as a direct target of miR-425. Moreover, knockdown of miR-425 promoted the expression of DKK3 and suppressed cell migration and invasion capacity. miR-425 silencing increased E-cadherin levels but decreased vimentin and N-cadherin protein levels in T24 and 5637 cells.

Conclusion: Our study indicated that miR-425 promoted the migration and invasion of BC via targeting DKK3.

Oxymatrine can attenuate pathological deficits of Alzheimer's disease mice through regulation of neuroinflammation

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a common neurodegenerative disorder characterized by progressive learning and cognitive damage. Several hypotheses such as amyloid cascade hypothesis, hyper-phosphorylated τ hypothesis, and energy metabolism hypothesis have been proposed to elucidate the disease. However, the exact mechanism of AD remains unclear and current therapeutic strategies are miserable. Cumulative evidence showed that neuroinflammation plays a significant role in the pathogenesis of the AD. Oxymatrine (OMT), a plant-derived bioactive compound, has anti-viral, anti-fibrosis, and anti-tumor effects through the involvement of several immune-related signaling pathways. Whether OMT can attenuate the pathology of AD is largely unknown. In this manuscript, we found that treatment of OMT can significantly improve cognitive and learning abilities of AD mice during various behavioral test. Treatment of OMT can significantly reduce the densities of Aβ plaques and astrocyte clusters in the neocortex and hippocampus of AD mice. Furthermore, treatment of OMT significantly reduced the concentration of pro-inflammatory cytokines including IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α and IL-17A in AD mice. Taken together, our data indicate that OMT may serve as a potential drug for AD.

Oxymatrine‑mediated maturation of dendritic cells leads to activation of FOXP3+/CD4+ Treg cells and reversal of cisplatin‑resistance in lung cancer cells

The dendritic cell (DC)‑regulatory T (Treg) system serves a leading role in the immunosuppression of the tumor microenvironment, which is not conducive to radiotherapy and chemotherapy treatment for lung cancer. The present study aimed to investigate the effect of oxymatrine (OMT) on the DC‑Treg system in the tumor microenvironment in vitro and to examine its mechanism. The expressions of CD83 antigen, T‑lymphocyte activation antigen CD86, CD11 antigen‑like family member C and major histocompatibility complex II in DCs were increased upon treatment with 1 mg/ml OMT, as detected by flow cytometry. Following pretreatment with OMT, the DCs mediated the forkhead box protein P3 overexpression in primitive cluster of differentiation 4+ T cells at the protein and mRNA expression levels. The expression levels of anti‑inflammatory factors, including interleukin (IL)‑10, tumor growth factor‑β, IL‑35, and pro‑inflammatory cytokines, including interferon‑γ, IL‑12 and IL‑2, in the co‑culture supernatant were increased as measured by ELISA. When DCs and DC‑Tregs were co‑cultured with cisplatin‑resistant A549 cells, the proportion of apoptosis in the co‑culture groups was increased under treatment with cisplatin, which was detected by Annexin V/propidium Iodide staining and western blotting. The present results suggested that OMT may promote the maturation of DCs, mediate the differentiation of T cells into Treg cells, and reverse the resistance of tumor cells to cisplatin in vitro. It was suggested that OMT is an important adjunct to chemotherapy through the regulation of antitumor responses.

Cell cycle, energy metabolism and DNA repair pathways in cancer cells are suppressed by Compound Kushen Injection

BACKGROUND

In this report we examine candidate pathways perturbed by Compound Kushen Injection (CKI), a Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) that we have previously shown to alter the gene expression patterns of multiple pathways and induce apoptosis in cancer cells.

METHODS

We have measured protein levels in Hep G2 and MDA-MB-231 cells for genes in the cell cycle pathway, DNA repair pathway and DNA double strand breaks (DSBs) previously shown to have altered expression by CKI. We have also examined energy metabolism by measuring [ADP]/[ATP] ratio (cell energy charge), lactate production and glucose consumption. Our results demonstrate that CKI can suppress protein levels for cell cycle regulatory proteins and DNA repair while increasing the level of DSBs. We also show that energy metabolism is reduced based on reduced glucose consumption and reduced cellular energy charge.

RESULTS

Our results validate these pathways as important targets for CKI. We also examined the effect of the major alkaloid component of CKI, oxymatrine and determined that it had no effect on DSBs, a small effect on the cell cycle and increased the cell energy charge.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results indicate that CKI likely acts through the effect of multiple compounds on multiple targets where the observed phenotype is the integration of these effects and synergistic interactions.

Oxymatrine Attenuates Tumor Growth and Deactivates STAT5 Signaling in a Lung Cancer Xenograft Model

Oxymatrine (OMT) is a major alkaloid found in radix Sophorae flavescentis extract and has been reported to exhibit various pharmacological activities. We elucidated the detailed molecular mechanism(s) underlying the therapeutic actions of OMT in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells and a xenograft mouse model. Because the STAT5 signaling cascade has a significant role in regulating cell proliferation and survival in tumor cells, we hypothesized that OMT may disrupt this signaling cascade to exert its anticancer effects. We found that OMT can inhibit the constitutive activation of STAT5 by suppressing the activation of JAK1/2 and c-Src, nuclear localization, as well as STAT5 binding to DNA in A549 cells and abrogated IL-6-induced STAT5 phosphorylation in H1299 cells. We also report that a sub-optimal concentration of OMT when used in combination with a low dose of paclitaxel produced significant anti-cancer effects by inhibiting cell proliferation and causing substantial apoptosis. In a preclinical lung cancer mouse model, OMT when used in combination with paclitaxel produced a significant reduction in tumor volume. These results suggest that OMT in combination with paclitaxel can cause an attenuation of lung cancer growth both in vitro and in vivo.

Oxymatrine Inhibits Transforming Growth Factor β1 (TGF-β1)-Induced Cardiac Fibroblast-to-Myofibroblast Transformation (FMT) by Mediating the Notch Signaling Pathway In Vitro

Background

Oxymatrine, a component extracted from the traditional Chinese herb Sophora japonica (Sophora flavescens Ait.), has various pharmacological effects, especially on the cardiovascular system. However, its cardiac protection effects and the underlying mechanism are still poorly understood. In the present study, we investigated the inhibitory effect and mechanism of oxymatrine on cardiac fibrosis induced by TGF-β1.

Material/Methods

Cardiac fibroblasts were isolated and purified from neonatal rats. Immunocytochemical staining was used to identify the cells. MTT assay and immunofluorescence staining were used to assess cardiac fibroblasts proliferation and myofibroblasts transformation. Hematoxylin-eosin staining was performed to evaluate morphological changes of cardiac fibroblasts. The secretion of type I and III collagen was assessed by staining with picrosirius red and the hydroxyproline content was determined by colorimetric assay. Cardiac fibroblast migration was examined by scratch assay and DNA content was detected to analyze cell cycle distribution using flow cytometry. Western blot analysis was used to detect the protein expressions of Notch pathway-associated protein in cardiac fibroblasts.

Results

Oxymatrine and Notch signaling pathway inhibitor DAPT could attenuated TGF-β1 induced the capacity of proliferation and migration increased in cardiac fibroblasts, as well as the secretion of collagen and hydroxyproline colorimetric content in medium. TGF-β1 induced the biomarker α-SMA of fibroblast-to-myofibroblast transformation (FMT), which was inhibited by oxymatrine and DAPT. Western blotting confirmed that oxymatrine blocked the activation of Notch induced by TGF-β1.

Conclusions

Oxymatrine is a potential inhibitor FMT induced by TGF-β1, which is at least in part mediated via inhibition of Notch signaling.

Oxymatrine inhibits non-small cell lung cancer via suppression of EGFR signaling pathway

Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) plays a crucial role in human non–small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) tumorigenesis. In this study, oxymatrine was identified as an EGFR signaling pathway inhibitor in NSCLC. Oxymatrine inhibited anchorage‐dependent and independent growth of NSCLC cell lines but had no cytotoxicity in normal lung cells. We found that exposure to oxymatrine not only suppressed the activity of wild‐type EGFR but also inhibited the activation of exon 19 deletion and L858R/T790M mutated EGFR. Flow cytometry analysis suggested that oxymatrine‐induced cell cycle G0/G1 arrest was dependent on EGFR‐Akt signaling. Exogenous overexpression of Myr‐Akt rescued cyclin D1 expression in HCC827 cells. Moreover, oxymatrine prominently suppressed tumor growth in a xenograft mouse model. Thus, oxymatrine appears to be a novel therapeutic agent for NSCLC treatment.