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Banks P, Funkhouser EM, Macias AM, Lovett B, Meador S, Hatch A, Garraffo HM, Cartwright KC, Kasson MT, Marek PE, Jones TH, Mevers E. The Chemistry of the Defensive Secretions of Three Species of Millipedes in the Genus Brachycybe. J Chem Ecol 2024:10.1007/s10886-024-01518-6. [PMID: 38853234 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-024-01518-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2024] [Revised: 05/13/2024] [Accepted: 05/22/2024] [Indexed: 06/11/2024]
Abstract
Millipedes have long been known to produce a diverse array of chemical defense agents that deter predation. These compounds, or their precursors, are stored in high concentration within glands (ozadenes) and are released upon disturbance. The subterclass Colobognatha contains four orders of millipedes, all of which are known to produce terpenoid alkaloids-spare the Siphonophorida that produce terpenes. Although these compounds represent some of the most structurally-intriguing millipede-derived natural products, they are the least studied class of millipede defensive secretions. Here, we describe the chemistry of millipede defensive secretions from three species of Brachycybe: Brachycybe producta, Brachycybe petasata, and Brachycybe rosea. Chemical investigations using mass spectrometry-based metabolomics, chemical synthesis, and 2D NMR led to the identification of five alkaloids, three of which are new to the literature. All identified compounds are monoterpene alkaloids with the new compounds representing indolizidine (i.e. hydrogosodesmine) and quinolizidine alkaloids (i.e. homogosodesmine and homo-hydrogosodesmine). The chemical diversity of these compounds tracks the known species phylogeny of this genus, rather than the geographical proximity of the species. The indolizidines and quinolizidines are produced by non-sympatric sister species, B. producta and B. petasata, while deoxybuzonamine is produced by another set of non-sympatric sister species, B. rosea and Brachycybe lecontii. The fidelity between the chemical diversity and phylogeny strongly suggests that millipedes generate these complex defensive agents de novo and begins to provide insights into the evolution of their biochemical pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paige Banks
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA
| | - Emma M Funkhouser
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Military Institute, Lexington, VA, 24450, USA
| | - Angie M Macias
- Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - Brian Lovett
- Emerging Pests and Pathogens Research Unit, USDA ARS, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Shelby Meador
- Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - Arden Hatch
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA
| | - H Martin Garraffo
- National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, 20899, USA
| | - Kaitie C Cartwright
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Military Institute, Lexington, VA, 24450, USA
| | - Matt T Kasson
- Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - Paul E Marek
- Department of Entomology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA
| | - Tappey H Jones
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Military Institute, Lexington, VA, 24450, USA
| | - Emily Mevers
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA.
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Abstract
The name “millipede” translates to a thousand feet (from mille “thousand” and pes “foot”). However, no millipede has ever been described with more than 750 legs. We discovered a new record-setting species of millipede with 1,306 legs, Eumillipes persephone, from Western Australia. This diminutive animal (0.95 mm wide, 95.7 mm long) has 330 segments, a cone-shaped head with enormous antennae, and a beak for feeding. A distant relative of the previous record holder, Illacme plenipes from California, it belongs to a different order, the Polyzoniida. Discovered 60 m below ground in a drill hole created for mineral exploration, E. persephone possesses troglomorphic features; it lacks eyes and pigmentation, and it has a greatly elongated body—features that stand in stark contrast to its closest surface-dwelling relatives in Australia and all other members of its order. Using phylogenomics, we found that super-elongation (> 180 segments) evolved repeatedly in the millipede class Diplopoda. The striking morphological similarity between E. persephone and I. plenipes is a result of convergent evolution, probably for locomotion in similar soil habitats. Discovered in the resource-rich Goldfields-Esperance region and threatened by encroaching surface mining, documentation of this species and conservation of its habitat are of critical importance.
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Wong VL, Hennen DA, Macias AM, Brewer MS, Kasson MT, Marek P. Natural history of the social millipede Brachycybe lecontii Wood, 1864. Biodivers Data J 2020; 8:e50770. [PMID: 32296285 PMCID: PMC7148388 DOI: 10.3897/bdj.8.e50770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2020] [Accepted: 03/26/2020] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The millipede Brachycybe lecontii Wood, 1864 is a fungivorous social millipede known for paternal care of eggs and forming multi-generational aggregations. We investigated the life history, paternal care, chemical defence, feeding and social behaviour of B. lecontii and provided morphological and anatomical descriptions, using light and scanning electron microscopy. Based on observations of B. lecontii from 13 locations throughout its distribution, we report the following natural history aspects. The oviposition period of B. lecontii lasted from mid-April to late June and the incubation period lasted 3-4 weeks. Only males cared for the eggs and subsequent care of juveniles was not observed. In one case, the clutches of two males became combined and they were later cared for by only one of the males. The defensive compound of B. lecontii is stored in large glands occupying a third of the paranotal volume and were observed only in stadia II millipedes and older. We observed B. lecontii feeding on fungi of the order Polyporales and describe a cuticular structure on the tip of the labrum that may relate to fungivory. We found that their stellate-shaped aggregations (pinwheels) do not form in the absence of fungus and suggest the aggregation is associated with feeding. We describe and illustrate a previously undescribed comb-like structure on the tibia and tarsi of the six anterior-most leg-pairs and measure the colour and spectral reflectance of the B. lecontii exoskeleton.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria L Wong
- Department of Entomology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, United States of America Department of Entomology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Blacksburg United States of America
| | - Derek A Hennen
- Department of Entomology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, United States of America Department of Entomology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Blacksburg United States of America
| | - Angie M Macias
- Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, United States of America Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, West Virginia University Morgantown United States of America
| | - Michael S Brewer
- Department of Biology, East Carolina University, Greenville, United States of America Department of Biology, East Carolina University Greenville United States of America
| | - Matt T Kasson
- Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, United States of America Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, West Virginia University Morgantown United States of America
| | - Paul Marek
- Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, United States of America Virginia Tech Blacksburg United States of America.,Department of Entomology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, United States of America Department of Entomology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Blacksburg United States of America
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Macias AM, Marek PE, Morrissey EM, Brewer MS, Short DP, Stauder CM, Wickert KL, Berger MC, Metheny AM, Stajich JE, Boyce G, Rio RVM, Panaccione DG, Wong V, Jones TH, Kasson MT. Diversity and function of fungi associated with the fungivorous millipede, Brachycybe lecontii. FUNGAL ECOL 2019; 41:187-197. [PMID: 31871487 PMCID: PMC6927558 DOI: 10.1016/j.funeco.2019.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Fungivorous millipedes (subterclass Colobognatha) likely represent some of the earliest known mycophagous terrestrial arthropods, yet their fungal partners remain elusive. Here we describe relationships between fungi and the fungivorous millipede, Brachycybe lecontii. Their fungal community is surprisingly diverse, including 176 genera, 39 orders, four phyla, and several undescribed species. Of particular interest are twelve genera conserved across wood substrates and millipede clades that comprise the core fungal community of B. lecontii. Wood decay fungi, long speculated to serve as the primary food source for Brachycybe species, were absent from this core assemblage and proved lethal to millipedes in pathogenicity assays while entomopathogenic Hypocreales were more common in the core but had little effect on millipede health. This study represents the first survey of fungal communities associated with any colobognath millipede, and these results offer a glimpse into the complexity of millipede fungal communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angie M. Macias
- Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - Paul E. Marek
- Department of Entomology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA
| | - Ember M. Morrissey
- Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - Michael S. Brewer
- Department of Biology, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27858, USA
| | | | - Cameron M. Stauder
- Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - Kristen L. Wickert
- Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - Matthew C. Berger
- Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - Amy M. Metheny
- Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - Jason E. Stajich
- Department of Microbiology and Plant Pathology and Institute for Integrative Genome Biology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Greg Boyce
- Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - Rita V. M. Rio
- Department of Biology, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - Daniel G. Panaccione
- Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - Victoria Wong
- Department of Entomology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA
| | - Tappey H. Jones
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Military Institute, Lexington, VA, 24450, USA
| | - Matt T. Kasson
- Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
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Moritz L, Wesener T. The first known fossils of the Platydesmida—an extant American genus in Cretaceous amber from Myanmar (Diplopoda: Platydesmida: Andrognathidae). ORG DIVERS EVOL 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s13127-019-00408-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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