The Effects of a Real-Time Visual Kinetic Feedback Intervention on Shock Attenuation of the Equestrian Rider's Trunk: A Pilot Study

Augmented feedback (provided by an external source) has been commonly used by practitioners who are introducing or re-educating movement patterns as a valuable tool of instruction. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of real-time visual kinetic feedback on a horse-riding coaching session. Sixteen riders volunteered to take part in this study. They performed a pre-intervention trial, a 20-min coaching intervention, and a post-intervention trial. The participants randomly received a coaching + feedback intervention or a coaching-only intervention. Forces at the bit and stirrups were recorded at trot and canter. Thirteen inertial measuring units were fitted to the horse's forelimbs and poll, to the stirrups, cantle of the saddle, distal part of the bridles, 1st sacrum vertebrae of the rider (S1), 7th cervical vertebrae of the rider (C7), wrists of the rider, and helmet. The shock attenuation (SA) between helmet:saddle and between C7:S1 and absolute force output were calculated. Changes in SA and force output were compared between groups by two-way repeated measures ANOVA (group^*time) both at trot and canter. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. SA was significantly lower in both groups and conditions after the intervention. C7:S1 SA was significantly lower in the feedback + coaching group at canter and trot, and helmet:saddle SA was significantly lower in the feedback + coaching group at trot than in the coaching group. A significant increase in force was observed in all the groups on the stirrups at trot and canter, but no significant changes were observed on rein forces. Implementing sports wearables that provide such type of information might be of remarkable benefit for the rider's development and performance.

Guidelines for the Measurement of Rein Tension in Equestrian Sport

Rein tension is relatively easy to measure, and the resulting data are useful for evaluating the interaction between horse and rider. To date, there have been a number of studies using different transducers, calibration methods and analytical techniques. The purpose of this paper is to make recommendations regarding the collection, analysis and reporting of rein tension data. The goal is to assist users in selecting appropriate equipment, choosing verified methods of calibration, data collection and analysis, and reporting their results consistently to facilitate comparisons between different studies. Sensors should have a suitable range and resolution together with a fast enough dynamic response, according to the gait, speed and type of riding for which they will be used. An appropriate calibration procedure is necessary before each recording session. A recording frequency of 50 Hz is adequate for most rein tension studies. The data may be analyzed using time-series methods or by extracting and analyzing discrete variables chosen in accordance with the study objectives. Consistent reporting facilitates comparisons between studies.

A scoping review of determinants of performance in dressage

As a first step in achieving an evidence-based classification system for the sport of Para Dressage, there is a clear need to define elite dressage performance. Previous studies have attempted to quantify performance with able-bodied riders using scientific methods; however, definitive measures have yet to be established for the horse and/or the rider. This may be, in part, due to the variety of movements and gaits that are found within a dressage test and also due to the complexity of the horse-rider partnership. The aim of this review is therefore to identify objective measurements of horse performance in dressage and the functional abilities of the rider that may influence them to achieve higher scores. Five databases (SportDiscuss, CINAHL, MEDLINE, EMBASE, VetMed) were systematically searched from 1980 to May 2018. Studies were included if they fulfilled the following criteria: (1) English language; (2) employ objective, quantitative outcome measures for describing equine and human performance in dressage; (3) describe objective measures of superior horse performance using between-subject comparisons and/or relating outcome measures to competitive scoring methods; (4) describe demands of dressage using objective physiological and/or biomechanical measures from human athletes and/or how these demands are translated into superior performance. In total, 773 articles were identified. Title and abstract screening resulted in 155 articles that met the eligibility criteria, 97 were excluded during the full screening of articles, leaving 58 included articles (14 horse, 44 rider) involving 311 equine and 584 able-bodied human participants. Mean ± sd (%) quality scores were 63.5 ± 15.3 and 72.7 ± 14.7 for the equine and human articles respectively. Significant objective measures of horse performance (n = 12 articles) were grouped into themes and separated by gait/movement. A range of temporal variables that indicated superior performance were found in all gaits/movements. For the rider, n = 5 articles reported variables that identified significant differences in skill level, which included the postural position and ROM of the rider's pelvis, trunk, knee and head. The timing of rider pelvic and trunk motion in relation to the movement of the horse emerged as an important indicator of rider influence. As temporal variables in the horse are consistently linked to superior performance it could be surmised that better overall dressage performance requires minimal disruption from the rider whilst the horse maintains a specific gait/movement. Achieving the gait/movement in the first place depends upon the intrinsic characteristics of the horse, the level of training achieved and the ability of the rider to apply the correct aid. The information from this model will be used to develop an empirical study to test the relative strength of association between impairment and performance in able-bodied and Para Dressage riders.

Mouth Pain in Horses: Physiological Foundations, Behavioural Indices, Welfare Implications, and a Suggested Solution

Simple Summary

Mouth pain in horses, specifically that caused by bits, is evaluated as a significant welfare issue. The conscious experiences of pain generated within the body generally, its roles, and its assessment using behaviour, as well as the sensory functionality of the horse’s mouth, are outlined as background to a more detailed evaluation of mouth pain. Bit-induced mouth pain elicited by compression, laceration, inflammation, impeded blood flow, and the stretching of tissues is considered. Observable signs of mouth pain are behaviours that are present in bitted horses and absent or much less prevalent when they are bit-free. It is noted that many equestrians do not recognise that these behaviours indicate mouth pain, so that the magnitude of the problem is often underestimated. The negative experiences that are most responsible for welfare compromise include the pain itself, but also, related to this pain, potentially intense breathlessness, anxiety, and fear. Finally, a series of questions is proposed to clarify issues that are relevant to increasing the adoption of bit-free bridles in order to avoid bit-induced mouth pain.

Abstract

A proposition addressed here is that, although bitted horses are viewed by many equestrians as being largely free of bit-related mouth pain, it seems likely that most behavioural signs of such pain are simply not recognised. Background information is provided on the following: the major features of pain generation and experience; cerebrocortical involvement in the conscious experience of pain by mammals; the numerous other subjective experiences mammals can have; adjunct physiological responses to pain; some general feature of behavioural responses to pain; and the neural bases of sensations generated within the mouth. Mouth pain in horses is then discussed. The areas considered exclude dental disease, but they include the stimulation of pain receptors by bits in the interdental space, the tongue, the commissures of the mouth, and the buccal mucosa. Compression, laceration, inflammation, impeded tissue blood flow, and tissue stretching are evaluated as noxious stimuli. The high pain sensitivity of the interdental space is described, as are likely increases in pain sensitivity due to repeated bit contact with bruises, cuts, tears, and/or ulcers wherever they are located in the mouth. Behavioural indices of mouth pain are then identified by contrasting the behaviours of horses when wearing bitted bridles, when changed from bitted to bit-free bridles, and when free-roaming unbitted in the wild. Observed indicative behaviours involve mouth movements, head-neck position, and facial expression (“pain face”), as well as characteristic body movements and gait. The welfare impacts of bit-related pain include the noxiousness of the pain itself as well as likely anxiety when anticipating the pain and fear whilst experiencing it, especially if the pain is severe. In addition, particular mouth behaviours impede airflow within the air passages of the upper respiratory system, effects that, in their turn, adversely affect the air passages in the lungs. Here, they increase airflow resistance and decrease alveolar gas exchange, giving rise to suffocating experiences of breathlessness. In addition, breathlessness is a likely consequence of the low jowl angles commonly maintained during dressage. If severe, as with pain, the prospect of breathlessness is likely to give rise to anxiety and the direct experience of breathlessness to fear. The related components of welfare compromise therefore likely involve pain, breathlessness, anxiety, and fear. Finally, a 12-point strategy is proposed to give greater impetus to a wider adoption of bit-free bridles in order to avoid bit-induced mouth pain.

Bit type exerts an influence on self-controlled rein tension in unridden horses

Bit configuration and acting rein forces play a crucial role in oral health and comfort of ridden horses. Although it is a big animal welfare issue, dynamic response of horses to different bits has yet not been thoroughly investigated. This convenience sample experimental study describes a model to overcome the almost uncontrollable influence of riders on rein tension and evaluates self-controlled maximum side rein tension of ten sound horses randomly bitted with a double-jointed (DJS) and a version of a Mullen mouth snaffle-bit under unridden conditions. Horses were exercised at walk and trot on a horizontal treadmill wearing custom made force-sensing resistors (FSR) equipped to side reins. FSR were synchronized with a camera-based motion analysis system providing information on amplitudes and temporal occurrence of self-controlled maximum side rein tensile forces during different phases of separated motion cycles. The DJS exhibited larger side rein tension, indicating higher bit contact. Constant temporal occurrence of monophasic maxima at walk and biphasic maxima at trot could be observed in both bits. Within the limitations of this study, application of FSR linked to side reins in unridden horses may provide a promising tool when studying subjective response of horses to different bits.

Rein Tension in Transitions and Halts during Equestrian Dressage Training

Simple Summary

In the equestrian dressage discipline, the transitions (changes) between gaits and into halts, occur often in riding sessions. Rein tension before, during and after the transitions between gaits, and the transitions into halts were studied. The vertical motion data for the horse’s head and croup, and rein tension data were collected from six professional riders, each riding three of their own horses during normal training sessions. The horse training levels varied from basic to advanced. The activities during the sessions were categorised into gaits, transitions between gaits and into halts based on video evaluation. The transitions were categorised according to whether they had intermediate steps that were not characteristic of the preceding or the following gait. The rein tension just before the transition was strongly related to rein tension during the transitions. There was slightly lower tension during the upward transitions than during the downward transitions. There was no difference in rein tension depending on whether intermediate steps were present or not. The left rein tension was generally lower than the right rein tension. The rein tension associated with the transitions and halts varied substantially between riders and also the horses. This information is useful for trainers seeking to understand the rein tension patterns associated with transitions.

Abstract

In dressage, the performance of transitions between gaits and halts is an integral part of riding sessions. The study aimed to evaluate rein tension before, during and after the transitions between different gaits and the transitions into halts. The kinematic (inertial measurement units) data for the head and croup, and rein tension data, were collected (128 Hz) from six professional riders each riding three of their own horses, training levels varying from basic to advanced, during normal training sessions. The activities were categorised into gaits, halts and transitions based on video evaluation. The transitions were categorised as without (type 1) or with (type 2) intermediate steps that are not normally present in the gaits preceding or following the transition. The differences in the median rein tension before/during/after transitions, between the types and left/right reins were analysed in mixed models. The rein tension just before the transition was the strongest determinant of tension during the transition. The rein tension was slightly lower during upward transitions compared to downward transitions, reflecting the pattern of the preceding gait. Type 1 and 2 downward transitions were not different regarding rein tension. The left rein tension was lower than right rein tension. The rein tension associated with the transitions and halts varied substantially between riders and horses. The generally strong association of the gaits and their inherent biomechanics with rein tension should be taken into account when riding transitions and halts.

Strength and Reaction Time Capabilities of New Zealand Polo Players and Their Association with Polo Playing Handicap

Polo is an equestrian team sport consisting of four players per team, with level of play determined by cumulative player handicap (-2 to +10 goals), with a higher handicap denoting a better player. There is minimal literature investigating Polo players' physical attributes, hence the understanding of the physical characteristics that may contribute to an improved handicap are unknown. This study sought to identify the relationship between pertinent strength measures (left and right hand grip strength; absolute and relative isometric mid-thigh pull) and reaction time in Polo handicap in 19 New Zealand Polo players, and ascertain whether handicap could be predicted by these measures. Correlation coefficients were expressed using R values, accompanying descriptors and 90% confidence intervals (C.I.). Variance explained was expressed via the R2 statistic, and statistical significance set at p < 0.05. Right hand grip strength, isometric mid-thigh pull values were found to significantly correlate to and explain variance within Polo player handicap (all moderate to large correlations; p < 0.05). Whereas left hand grip strength (R: 0.380; 90% C.I. -0.011 to 0.670) and reaction time (0.020; -0.372 to 0.406) were non-significant, moderate and trivial correlates and predictors of handicap respectively. Practically, these findings highlight the differing roles between rein and mallet hands of Polo players and emphasise the importance of a strong and stable platform when riding and striking the ball. Lack of association with reaction time may be explained in part by higher handicapped Polo players employing a more proactive approach to the game.

Modelling rein tension during riding sessions using the generalised additive modelling technique

General additive modelling (GAM-modelling) is an exploratory technique that can be used on longitudinal (time series) data, e.g. rein tension, over a period of time. The aim was to apply GAM-modelling to investigate changes in rein tension during a normal flatwork training session. Six riders each rode two or three of their horses (n=17 horses) during a normal flatwork/dressage training session with video recordings and rein tension measurements (128 Hz). Training sessions were classified according to rider position, stride length and whether horses were straight, bent to the left or bent to the right. The rein tension data were split into strides and for each stride minimal (MIN) and maximal (MAX) rein tension were determined and the area under the rein tension curve (AUC) was calculated. Using data on a contact the three outcome variables MIN, MAX and AUC rein tension were modelled by horse and rein (left/right), and time within the session was modelled as a smooth function. Two additional sets of models were constructed; one set using data within-rein with gait as a fixed effect and one set with rein and gait as fixed effects. Mean ± standard deviation values were MIN: 8.0±7.7 N, AUC: 180±109 Ns, and MAX: 49±31 N. GAM-modelling extracted visually interpretable information from the originally chaotic rein tension signals. Modelled data suggest that MIN, AUC and MAX follow the same pattern within horse. In general, rein tension was lowest in walk, intermediate in trot and highest in canter. Evaluating the entire ride, 12/17 horses systematically showed higher tension in the right rein. It is concluded that GAM-models may be useful for detecting patterns through time in biomechanical data.

Rein tension in novice riders when riding a horse simulator

This study reports tension in the left and right reins when riding a horse simulator that moved only in the sagittal plane. The objective was to determine whether asymmetries in rein tension of novice riders at the rising trot, canter, and halt were present, and if so, to investigate their relationship with the rider’s handedness. The experimental hypothesis was that rein tension would be higher on the side of the rider’s non-dominant hand. 22 novice riders (19 right-handed; 3 left-handed) rode a horse simulator at halt, rising trot and canter. Rein tension was recorded in both reins at a sampling rate of 1000 Hz for 8 s at each gait. The variables measured in rising trot and canter were minimal and maximal tension, the change between minimal and maximal values and mean tension per step at rising trot or per stride at canter. At halt only mean tension during the 8 s recording was measured. Comparisons between right and left reins and between right-handed and left-handed riders were made using mixed models. The results showed no asymmetries in mean tension at halt. In rising trot and canter all significant differences involved higher tension in the right rein regardless of handedness of the riders. During rising trot the minimum was higher in the right rein over all riders and both the mean and maximal values were higher in the right rein in left-handed riders. In canter left-handed riders had higher mean tension in the right rein. All recorded asymmetries had higher tension in the right rein compared with the left and they were more prevalent in left-handed riders which implies higher tension in the non-dominant hand. Rein tension patterns were not symmetrical on the left and right sides and asymmetries in left-handed riders were not mirrored in right-handed riders.

Stride-related rein tension patterns in walk and trot in the ridden horse

Background

The use of tack (equipment such as saddles and reins) and especially of bits because of rein tension resulting in pressure in the mouth is questioned because of welfare concerns. We hypothesised that rein tension patterns in walk and trot reflect general gait kinematics, but are also determined by individual horse and rider effects. Six professional riders rode three familiar horses in walk and trot. Horses were equipped with rein tension meters logged by inertial measurement unit technique. Left and right rein tension data were synchronized with the gait.

Results

Stride split data (0–100 %) were analysed using mixed models technique to elucidate the left/right rein and stride percentage interaction, in relation to the exercises performed. In walk, rein tension was highest at hindlimb stance. Rein tension was highest in the suspension phase at trot, and lowest during the stance phase. In rising trot there was a significant difference between the two midstance phases, but not in sitting trot. When turning in trot there was a significant statistical association with the gait pattern with the tension being highest in the inside rein when the horse was on the outer fore-inner hindlimb diagonal.

Conclusions

Substantial between-rider variation was demonstrated in walk and trot and between-horse variation in walk. Biphasic rein tensions patterns during the stride were found mainly in trot.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13028-015-0182-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.